Ichniowski
and Preston 1989, p. 549 reported “rampant and unchecked
competition completely throttled . . . matching bids and illegal
combinations between employer an employee associations . . .
and prices fixed between ostensible competitors.” A more recent
study found that 84% of American owners, architects, construction
managers, contractors, and subcontractors had witnessed
some sort of unethical behavior in their contact with the construction
industry Doran 2004.