Discussion
This study aimed to explore the factors that facilitated
or hindered GDM self-management among a group of
women attending for pregnancy care in a low socioeconomic
setting. Findings suggest that women encountered
a number of barriers in their quest to self-manage
their condition. This included difficulty comprehending
the urgency of immediate diet control. Most women
spoke of the challenge of implementing a complex regimen
of blood testing and dietary manipulation, within a very short time frame, while they were still coming to
terms with the shock of diagnosis. Many reported commencing
on insulin within 1–2 weeks of GDM diagnosis,
and some women felt they would have mastered the
requisite GDM self-management behaviours in a more
generous time frame. This urgency of immediate treatment
of maternal hyperglycaemia is echoed in the literature,
where an immediate reduction of maternal blood
glucose is recommended in order to minimize adverse
pregnancy outcomes [13,49]. Moreover, recent studies
also indicate that maternal hyperglycaemia, at lower
levels that those previously recognised, has a detrimental
effect on fetal welfare [25] and this finding has further
increased pressure on health professionals to effect an immediate
reduction in maternal blood glucose levels [13].
Participants in this study, found dietary self-management
difficult, related to the time required to learn food values,
and to cook healthy food. Social factors such as eating with
family and friends also contributed to the dilemmas
women faced, while a lack of clear guidelines was identified
as hindering the process of diet control. Only two study
participants succeeded in self-managing their GDM without
insulin and both women, identified personal character
strengths and determination as assisting them to master
the necessary skills and behaviours. This very low rate of
non-insulin use was a surprising finding, particularly as
women were recruited on a first come basis rather than on
the basis of management regimens. However, further explication
of this finding is beyond the scope of this qualitative
study of women’s experience and future quantitative evaluation
is recommended. The finding may be incidental,
however, it is consistent with generally higher use of insulin
at the clinic where limited maternal education and
understanding are thought to impact on poorer dietary
adherence and higher rates of hyperglycaemia [19,20].
Whatever the reasons, rates of dietary self-management
alone were considerably lower, among study participants
than the recommended 65–90% of women discussed in
the literature [24-26]. This feature may also reflect limited
appropriate, culturally based educational resources for
women in this area.
In general, dietary self-management is recognised as
challenging [50,51] and as requiring motivation, understanding
of food values and of the amount to eat [22].
This knowledge and motivation may have been deficient
in our population due to their social circumstances and
may have also been affected by cultural beliefs about
particular foods, such as rice. Many participants struggled
to believe that traditional foods such as rice could be considered
‘bad’ food, in terms of excess calories, related to
portion sizes. Parallel findings present in the literature and
dietary change is recognized as difficult to achieve, particularly
among low socio-economic and migrant groups
[52,53]. Such difficulties relate to cultural mores, views
about traditional foods and a lack of appropriate food
alternatives [50,51,53,54]. Many participants in our
study were hesitant to change their diet, while at the
same time they were willing to eat less in order to
avoid hyperglycaemia. Parallel findings present in the
literature, and participants in Rhoads-Baeza and Reis’
study among low income Latino women with GDM,
were also reluctant to change from their traditional
consumption of fatty meats to healthier alternatives
[53]. On the other hand, Bandyopadhyay et al. [54] who
studied South Asian women with GDM in Australia,
found that participants predominantly changed to the
recommended diet, but were nonetheless unhappy
about the type and quantity of food allowed, and complained
of always feeling hungry.
One surprising factor in this study, was the frequency
with which women identified the use of insulin as an
easier option, rather than dietary control alone. This
finding is not evident in the literature and appears to relate
to the women’s concerns about hyperglycaemia at
the same time as encountering difficulties with dietary
restrictions and behavioural change. Women who
regarded insulin as easier than diet control alone,
expressed limited concerns about insulin use and
regarded it simply as a solution to their current dilemma
of high blood glucose and difficulty in effecting diet control.
None of these women displayed any knowledge of a
possible link between insulin use in GDM and subsequent
development of type 2 diabetes.
In terms of facilitators, women in this study were intensely
interested in maximizing fetal health and this
finding of concern for the fetus is echoed in other research
on women’s experiences of GDM [53-55]. Concern
for the fetus motivated participants to take on the
tasks of GDM self-management and, although many
women struggled to understand food values and to prepare
healthy meals, they remained dedicated to the
baby’s welfare. This manifested in the discomfort they
endured by eating less than they desired, eating foods
they did not enjoy, doing blood glucose levels and
administering insulin, and trying to meet with exercise
requirements. In the literature, a desire to protect the
fetus, or evidence of maternal-fetal attachment, is similarly
associated with greater pregnancy investment and
adoption of health promoting behaviours, such as
healthy diet [56,57].
Successful GDM self-management in our study was
mediated by support from family and health professionals.
Women identified husbands and partners as the
most important source of psychological support. A less
important, but additional form of psychological support
was offered by health professionals, including diabetes
educators, midwives, doctors, and dieticians. Similar
findings of psychological support as important in encouraging GDM self-management, are found in the
literature [58,59]. In particular, the partner’s support is
seen as especially valuable in effecting behavioural
change such as increasing exercise [59] while support
from health professionals was recognised as encouraging
women to view GDM as within their control [58].
Finally, this study has some limitations and the recruitment
of women who could speak conversational English
may have excluded many other migrant women in the area.
For this reason, a number of interpreter mediated focus
group discussions are planned for the future, which will include
representation of the most populous ethnic groups
in the area. Additionally, this small sample is from one geographical
area, which means that the findings cannot be
generalised to the Australian population as a whole [60].
However, the intent of the study was not to provide generalisable
information, but to explore the facilitators or impediments
to GDM self-management, among women in our
area. This aim has been achieved and, although findings
are not generalisable, they may also be applicable to other
similar populations [60].