In 1954, Chesapeake harvests rose dramatically in response to a 15 percent increase in ex- vessel price, which was itself the result of a decrease in mid-Atlantic harvests. However, this boom did not last for long. In 1959, the protozoan pathogen Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX) invad- ed the Chesapeake Bay and, soon after, Perkinsus marinus (Dermo) — both have been responsible for catastrophically killing most of the oysters in high-salinity regions of the Bay. In Virginia, leaseholders, or private growers, hold a majority of their leased bottoms in the high salinity areas affected by MSX and Dermo — public grounds are in the lower-salinity waters. Unlike Maryland watermen, who have depended for their harvests primarily on publicly open grounds, Virginia’s pri- vate industry has been virtually decimated.
In spite of the MSX invasion in the Bay, oyster production in Maryland in the 1960s in- creased for a short period. A major reason for that increase was the discovery of pre-historic fossil shell sources and the development of a dredge to extract the shell for use as a substrate to “catch” natural oyster seed. Subsequent employment of these resources by the State of Maryland was com- monly referred to as the “repletion program.”2
Prior to the repletion program, state legislation had required processors to make 10 percent of their shucked shell available for purchase by the state in order to ensure the availability of sub- strate for future oyster production. The legislation also provided funds for state shell-planting ac- tivities. The discovery of additional shell sources provided a cheap alternative to freshly shucked shell and yielded significant production increases. Maryland’s oyster production doubled from around 1.5 million bushels to some 3 million annually. The increase in importance of the reple- tion program relative to natural oyster set helped transform the oyster fishery from traditional nat- ural resource gathering into a “put-and-take” state fishery.3 Watermen were temporarily relieved of the constraints of nature alone and no longer solely dependent on the “recycling” of processed oyster shell.
The use of relatively inexpensive dredged shell also changed the philosophy of oyster man- agement in Maryland from maintenance of a collapsing industry to revitalization, through reple- tion, of a potentially valuable one. The state switched from its regulatory role of oyster manager to a champion of production growth. Although production began to wane in the late 1960s and has continued to do so, until about 1981 Maryland oyster production remained over 2 million bushels. During this time there was concern that the market could not absorb, at an acceptable price, more than about 2.5 million bushels. In this new scenario, the market, not nature, became the con- straining element.
Since the 1980s oyster production has been suffering from the reappearance of MSX and, es- pecially, Dermo. Maryland’s harvest has declined from over 2.5 million bushels during the 1980-
1982 season to under 250 thousand bushels in the early 1990s. As a result of the decline in supply, ex-vessel prices have risen.4 In spite of the increased ex-vessel prices, the effect of the loss of pro- duction on the income of the Chesapeake watermen has been significant. Unlike past battles with MSX and Dermo disease, this most recent outbreak has not been relieved by the repletion pro- gram. Lipton, Laval and Strand explain that the sporadic nature of the protozoan infections have made it difficult to develop a comprehensive strategy for oyster repletion.
Proposal to Revitalize Oyster Production
In contrast to the steep decline of oyster landings in Chesapeake Bay, oyster production on the west coast of the United States grew between 1982 and 1988 by 600 thousand pounds. The source of this production increase is hatchery production of the introduced species Crassostrea gigas (originally from Japan). Because of evidence that C. gigas is more resistant to MSX and Dermo, there has been strong interest in introducing this species into the Chesapeake Bay to test its hardi- ness. Virginia growers, in particular, are interested in introducing such a non-native species of oyster into their waters in an effort to revive their leased grounds and their processing industry. Maryland watermen, who harvest public grounds, have generally opposed introductions even though public grounds are not nearly as productive as they once were. In the meantime, harvesters in both Maryland and Virginia have turned to alternative resources — in Maryland, to softshell clams; in Virginia, to hardshell clams; in both states, to more intensive fishing effort for blue crabs, beginning earlier in the season and lasting later. Other watermen have left commercial fishing en- tirely.
The decision on whether or not to introduce C. gigas or some other non-native oyster into the Chesapeake Bay is not as straightforward as it may appear. Several factors must be considered including the costs and benefits of such an action. The net benefits to the different groups affect- ed by the introduction must be estimated. These benefits may be economic or ecological in na- ture. Other significant considerations in the decision process are the uncertainties involved.
Benefits of an Introduction
Among the expected benefits from the introduction of C. gigas. are those to commercial har- vesters and consumers. From the Virginia industry’s perspective, the argument in favor of introduc- ing a non-native species is based on the expected economic benefits, for instance, increases in in- come levels and employment, as well as in increases in producer surplus or economic rent.
The measurement of producer surplus is assessed as the revenue net of costs. In this case, cul- turing, processing, and harvesting costs are taken into account as well as the opportunity cost of a producer’s labor — what he or she could earn in the next best employment opportunity.
As Lipton, Lavan and Strand point out, if the introduction of C. gigas is for the purpose of
restoring a public fishery, the net benefit to producers will also depend on how the resource is managed. If an open access management regime is maintained, then net benefits to producers will be less than if a bottom leasing program or limited entry program on public grounds is instituted. Simply replacing one species with another does not necessarily eliminate the human-induced fac- tors that caused the decline of the native species.
Consumers of oysters may also benefit from the introduction of C. gigas or some other non- native molluscan into the Chesapeake Bay implying further increases in social welfare. Increases in consumer surplus may occur with expected increases in the quantity of oysters available and de- creases in price. Consumer welfare measures are assessed based on the demand for the introduced oyster. It is questionable, however, to what extent consumers are aware of or care about the oyster species they consume. It is entirely possible that the introduction of C. gigas into the Chesapeake will have negative net benefits: one reason is the negative publicity surrounding the health and safety aspects of eating molluscan shellfish. Consumer demand for the product may be highly in- elastic so that a slight increase in the available quantity will be accompanied by a large decline in price.
In addition to market-oriented benefits from oyster introduction, there are potentially signifi- cant ecological functions and services that oysters may enhance, ultimately leading to long-term benefits to society. Historically, the oyster was the dominant benthic organism in the Chesapeake Bay: according to many ecologists, as reef-forming organisms, oysters played a major role in ecosys- tem dynamics.5 Restoration of the oyster is seen therefore as highly desirable from an environmen- tal perspective. The oyster’s filter feeding functions could serve to filter the Bay’s large amounts of algae, which could perhaps help reverse eutrophication of the Chesapeake ecosystem. Related im- provements in water quality might ultimately provide ecosystem benefits in terms of improved fish- eries, aesthetics and recreation and could lead to avoided costs of sewage treatment or depuration facilities.
Costs of a Species Introduction
The costs of introducing C. gigas or any other non-native mollusc into the Chesapeake Bay include direct costs such as the actual costs of performing the introduction, monitoring, and main- tenance. In addition, there are costs associated with the introduction in the form of research dol- lars. That is, before an introduction is implemented, research must be conducted to determine the impact and probability of success of such an action.
Another critical cost is the risk of environmental injury resulting from species introductions. The history of molluscan introductions demonstrates that they can ferry in unintended or nuisance species that could potentially outcompete or displace a desirable native species. There are numerous examples in terrestrial and aquatic environments.6 In addition, the introduction of a non-na- tive species such as C. gigas could have unforeseen, detrimental ecological impacts.
The magnitude of the risks involved in introducing a non-native species into the Chesapeake Bay is as yet undetermined. However, it is clear that an introduction poses fewer risks for Vir- ginia’s oyster fishing industry than for Maryland’s. Unlike Maryland’s oyster fishery, which though much diminished is still viable, Virginia’s oyster industry is failing. Thus, Virginia’s industry does not risk the devastation of native species with the unintended, negative ecological consequences of an introduction. An introduction in Maryland’s waters, on the other hand, puts the native Crassostrea virginica potentially at risk.
ใน 1954, Chesapeake harvests กุหลาบอย่างมากในการตอบสนอง 15 เปอร์เซ็นต์เพิ่มในอดีตเรือราคา ซึ่งเป็นตัวผลของแอตแลนติกตอนกลาง harvests ลดลง อย่างไรก็ตาม บูมนี้ได้ไม่นาน ใน 1959 ศึกษา protozoan Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX) invad-ed อ่าว Chesapeake และ หลัง จาก มารินุสที่ Perkinsus (Dermo) ซึ่งทั้งสองถูกฆ่าส่วนใหญ่หอยนางรมในภูมิภาคสูงเค็มของอ่าว catastrophically เนีย leaseholders หรือเกษตรกรส่วนตัว เก็บส่วนใหญ่ของพื้นที่เช่าในพื้นที่เค็มสูงที่ได้รับผลกระทบโดย MSX Dermo — เหตุผลสาธารณะอยู่ในน้ำเค็มต่ำกว่า ซึ่งแตกต่างจาก watermen แมริแลนด์ที่มีพร้อมสำหรับ harvests ของตนเป็นหลักในการเปิดเผยจาก เวอร์จิเนียของระเบียง-pri อุตสาหกรรมได้ถูกแทบ decimatedแม้บุกรุก MSX ใน หอยนางรมผลิตในแมริแลนด์ในปี 1960 ในผ้าเป็นรอยย่นในระยะสั้น ๆ เหตุผลสำคัญในการเพิ่มมีการค้นพบฟอสซิลเปลือกก่อนประวัติศาสตร์แหล่งและการพัฒนาของ dredge แยกเปลือกสำหรับใช้เป็นพื้นผิวการ "จับ" หอยนางรมธรรมชาติเมล็ด งานต่อ ๆ ไปของทรัพยากรโดยรัฐแมริแลนด์ถูกเรียกว่า "repletion โปรแกรม" monly com 2ก่อนโปรแกรม repletion กฎหมายรัฐก็ต้องการโปรเซสเซอร์ให้ 10 เปอร์เซ็นต์ของเปลือกของ shucked สำหรับการซื้อขายโดยรัฐเพื่อให้ย่อย-strate สำหรับผลิตหอยนางรมในอนาคต กฎหมายที่ยังให้เงินรัฐปลูกเปลือก ac-tivities การค้นพบแหล่งเพิ่มเติมเชลล์ให้เป็นทางเลือกราคาประหยัด shucked สดเปลือก และผลผลิตที่สำคัญเพิ่มขึ้น แมริแลนด์ของหอยนางรมผลิตเพิ่มขึ้นสองเท่าจากประมาณ 1.5 ล้าน bushels บาง 3 ล้านปี เพิ่มความสำคัญของโปรแกรม reple สเตรชันสัมพันธ์ชุดหอยนางรมธรรมชาติช่วยแปลงประมงหอยนางรมจากดั้งเดิม nat - ural รวบรวมทรัพยากรใน fishery.3 "ย้าย และใช้" สถานะการ Watermen ถูกปลดปล่อยชั่วคราวของข้อจำกัดของธรรมชาติเพียงอย่างเดียว และไม่เพียงขึ้นอยู่กับการ "รีไซเคิล" ของเปลือกหอยที่ประมวลผลThe use of relatively inexpensive dredged shell also changed the philosophy of oyster man- agement in Maryland from maintenance of a collapsing industry to revitalization, through reple- tion, of a potentially valuable one. The state switched from its regulatory role of oyster manager to a champion of production growth. Although production began to wane in the late 1960s and has continued to do so, until about 1981 Maryland oyster production remained over 2 million bushels. During this time there was concern that the market could not absorb, at an acceptable price, more than about 2.5 million bushels. In this new scenario, the market, not nature, became the con- straining element.Since the 1980s oyster production has been suffering from the reappearance of MSX and, es- pecially, Dermo. Maryland’s harvest has declined from over 2.5 million bushels during the 1980-1982 season to under 250 thousand bushels in the early 1990s. As a result of the decline in supply, ex-vessel prices have risen.4 In spite of the increased ex-vessel prices, the effect of the loss of pro- duction on the income of the Chesapeake watermen has been significant. Unlike past battles with MSX and Dermo disease, this most recent outbreak has not been relieved by the repletion pro- gram. Lipton, Laval and Strand explain that the sporadic nature of the protozoan infections have made it difficult to develop a comprehensive strategy for oyster repletion.Proposal to Revitalize Oyster ProductionIn contrast to the steep decline of oyster landings in Chesapeake Bay, oyster production on the west coast of the United States grew between 1982 and 1988 by 600 thousand pounds. The source of this production increase is hatchery production of the introduced species Crassostrea gigas (originally from Japan). Because of evidence that C. gigas is more resistant to MSX and Dermo, there has been strong interest in introducing this species into the Chesapeake Bay to test its hardi- ness. Virginia growers, in particular, are interested in introducing such a non-native species of oyster into their waters in an effort to revive their leased grounds and their processing industry. Maryland watermen, who harvest public grounds, have generally opposed introductions even though public grounds are not nearly as productive as they once were. In the meantime, harvesters in both Maryland and Virginia have turned to alternative resources — in Maryland, to softshell clams; in Virginia, to hardshell clams; in both states, to more intensive fishing effort for blue crabs, beginning earlier in the season and lasting later. Other watermen have left commercial fishing en- tirely.The decision on whether or not to introduce C. gigas or some other non-native oyster into the Chesapeake Bay is not as straightforward as it may appear. Several factors must be considered including the costs and benefits of such an action. The net benefits to the different groups affect- ed by the introduction must be estimated. These benefits may be economic or ecological in na- ture. Other significant considerations in the decision process are the uncertainties involved.Benefits of an IntroductionAmong the expected benefits from the introduction of C. gigas. are those to commercial har- vesters and consumers. From the Virginia industry’s perspective, the argument in favor of introduc- ing a non-native species is based on the expected economic benefits, for instance, increases in in- come levels and employment, as well as in increases in producer surplus or economic rent.The measurement of producer surplus is assessed as the revenue net of costs. In this case, cul- turing, processing, and harvesting costs are taken into account as well as the opportunity cost of a producer’s labor — what he or she could earn in the next best employment opportunity.As Lipton, Lavan and Strand point out, if the introduction of C. gigas is for the purpose ofrestoring a public fishery, the net benefit to producers will also depend on how the resource is managed. If an open access management regime is maintained, then net benefits to producers will be less than if a bottom leasing program or limited entry program on public grounds is instituted. Simply replacing one species with another does not necessarily eliminate the human-induced fac- tors that caused the decline of the native species.Consumers of oysters may also benefit from the introduction of C. gigas or some other non- native molluscan into the Chesapeake Bay implying further increases in social welfare. Increases in consumer surplus may occur with expected increases in the quantity of oysters available and de- creases in price. Consumer welfare measures are assessed based on the demand for the introduced oyster. It is questionable, however, to what extent consumers are aware of or care about the oyster species they consume. It is entirely possible that the introduction of C. gigas into the Chesapeake will have negative net benefits: one reason is the negative publicity surrounding the health and safety aspects of eating molluscan shellfish. Consumer demand for the product may be highly in- elastic so that a slight increase in the available quantity will be accompanied by a large decline in price.In addition to market-oriented benefits from oyster introduction, there are potentially signifi- cant ecological functions and services that oysters may enhance, ultimately leading to long-term benefits to society. Historically, the oyster was the dominant benthic organism in the Chesapeake Bay: according to many ecologists, as reef-forming organisms, oysters played a major role in ecosys- tem dynamics.5 Restoration of the oyster is seen therefore as highly desirable from an environmen- tal perspective. The oyster’s filter feeding functions could serve to filter the Bay’s large amounts of algae, which could perhaps help reverse eutrophication of the Chesapeake ecosystem. Related im- provements in water quality might ultimately provide ecosystem benefits in terms of improved fish- eries, aesthetics and recreation and could lead to avoided costs of sewage treatment or depuration facilities.Costs of a Species Introduction
The costs of introducing C. gigas or any other non-native mollusc into the Chesapeake Bay include direct costs such as the actual costs of performing the introduction, monitoring, and main- tenance. In addition, there are costs associated with the introduction in the form of research dol- lars. That is, before an introduction is implemented, research must be conducted to determine the impact and probability of success of such an action.
Another critical cost is the risk of environmental injury resulting from species introductions. The history of molluscan introductions demonstrates that they can ferry in unintended or nuisance species that could potentially outcompete or displace a desirable native species. There are numerous examples in terrestrial and aquatic environments.6 In addition, the introduction of a non-na- tive species such as C. gigas could have unforeseen, detrimental ecological impacts.
The magnitude of the risks involved in introducing a non-native species into the Chesapeake Bay is as yet undetermined. However, it is clear that an introduction poses fewer risks for Vir- ginia’s oyster fishing industry than for Maryland’s. Unlike Maryland’s oyster fishery, which though much diminished is still viable, Virginia’s oyster industry is failing. Thus, Virginia’s industry does not risk the devastation of native species with the unintended, negative ecological consequences of an introduction. An introduction in Maryland’s waters, on the other hand, puts the native Crassostrea virginica potentially at risk.
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