Strategies[edit]
No comprehensive list of strategies has been agreed on by researchers in second-language acquisition,[3] but some commonly used strategies have been observed:
Paraphrasing
This refers to learners using different words or phrases to express their intended meaning. For example, if learners do not know the word grandfather they may paraphrase it by saying "my father's father".
Substitution
Learners may avoid a problematic word by using a different one, for example substituting the irregular verb make with the regular verb ask. The regularity of "ask" makes it easier to use correctly.[2]
Coining new words
This refers to learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not know. For example, a learner might refer to an art gallery as a "picture place".[2]
Language switch
Learners may insert a word from their first language into a sentence, and hope that their interlocutor will understand.[3][9]
Asking for clarification
The strategy of asking an interlocutor for the correct word or other help is a communication strategy.[3]
Non-verbal strategies
This can refer to strategies such as the use of gesture and mime to augment or replace verbal communication.[1][9]
Avoidance
Avoidance, which takes multiple forms, has been identified as a communication strategy. Learners of a second language may learn to avoid talking about topics for which they lack the necessary vocabulary or other language skills in the second language. Also, language learners sometimes start to try to talk about a topic, but abandon the effort in mid-utterance after discovering that they lack the language resources needed to complete their message.[9]