While Japanese students limited their business negotiations to simple matters such as changing their work schedules or requesting discounts when shopping, American students discussed how they had used negotiation strategies in a wide range of contexts. The Japanese attitude probably arises from the fact that Japanese companies have traditionally focused on long-term business projects (English and Lynn, 1995) and negotiations generally proceed from a foundation of trust and the expectation of mutual benefit rather than gaining an advantage over the other party. On the other hand, negotiation has been positively regarded by Americans who have been encouraged both to study negotiation strategies as well as implement them in a wide variety of circumstances. This conclusion is reflected in an American student’s response: "When I negotiate with others, I generally try to butter them up. I’ve been told I would make a good salesperson because of the way I can talk people into doing things I want." This reflects a possible cultural difference in that ‘buttering others up’ or flattering people to gain an advantage may be more acceptable in the United States than it is in Japan.
The following are examples of negotiation strategies cited by Americans based on their experiences. First, American students mentioned situations in which they negotiated diplomatically with their boss about how to perform a given task. This may be a reflection of an American cultural value that "verbal interactions between superiors and subordinates is an expected norm" (McDaniel & Quasha 2000). An example of how this strategy was employed successfully was: "Sometimes at work I disagree with my boss about what ingredients we should use in a dish. I throw my ideas out rather than tell my boss he’s wrong. I might say, ‘What if we try this…?’"
Although the following use of a negotiation strategy was viewed as successful by the student, she recognized that there was still some room for improvement: "When I wanted to explore a different way of performing a task, I made a suggestion to my boss regarding the change with words: ‘It would be easier if…’ or ‘I think that if this was changed, we would see….’ As I look back at the situation, I feel that if I used words like ‘What do you think about…?’ this would eliminate any defenses going up."
In the United States, where confrontation is considered acceptable when one is standing up for one’s rights, it is not surprising to find examples of students using negotiation strategies to protest what they perceive as unfair practices by their boss. A specific example was: "I received my 6 month review at work, and was very displeased about the unfair review. I told them specifically what I thought they had wrong. Then, they changed my review to a positive one and I actually got a small raise from it even though I didn’t even ask for one." In this dispute over a performance review, the student succeeded in persuading the boss to change the review from negative to positive by providing convincing evidence of his effort on the job without damaging the relationship. A similar situation in which the outcome of the negotiations was unsuccessful was: "This summer I did my internship, getting paid a lower wage than the standard line. When my internship ended, they asked if I could continue the job. I asked if I could receive a higher rate of pay. They declined almost instantly leaving the outcome of my negotiation unsuccessful. Maybe I should have written a formal letter, emphasizing how good of a worker I was and how I was no longer an intern." Upon reflection, the student recognized that the outcome might have been different if she had used a different negotiation strategy such as by offering reasons that the boss would find convincing, either orally or in a formal letter, and emphasizing what she had learned over the course of the internship. In both of the above cases, a key assumption of the negotiation strategy was that you usually cannot satisfy your personal interests unless you also meet the interests of the other party in the negotiations (Kennedy 2000; Ury 1993). The attitudes displayed in these two situations also reflect how much taking initiative is encouraged in American society (Stewart & Bennett 1991).
Another negotiation strategy employed by American students was setting the first offer high on purpose. This is a strategy commonly employed in American culture (Lewicki, Saunders & Barry 2006). A typical example was: "I bargained with a man for an item trying to lower the price. Obviously he didn’t take my first offer, but we agreed on a medium that satisfied us both."
Further, a strategy used by American students, after carefully listening to a customer’s complaint, was giving a logical explanation so as to assuage the customer’s dissatisfaction. A number of researchers who have analyzed negotiations state how important the role of active listening is. Their conclusion is that people respond more positively if they feel that you have understood them (Fisher, Ury & Patton 1991; Jones & Brinkert 2008). Representative examples were: "While I worked at Burger King, I had an older couple complain about how prices had gone up on a sandwich. I talked about our bad economy and how it costs more for products we use for our sandwiches;" and "I worked at a gas station and had to negotiate with customers all the time. I had a guy chew me out about the price of a product. By listening to his argument and nicely trying to treat him, I kept him from escalating his anger. The situation settled."