They examined four environmental sources from which employees get structure and direction in how to perform their work : the job itself, technology, the work unit, and the leader. The authors found that only when the first three sources of structure were weak did the influence of the leader strongly affect employees. It seem that employees can derive typical leaders qualities (that is, structure and direction) from inanimate sources in their environments and that leadership functions need not be associated with someone in authority. It is thus possible to envision a successfully operating leaderless group in which the job itself provides direction in what to do (initiating structure) and the work group members support and tend to one another (consideration).
There is also evidence that some individuals are capable of directing themselves, a concept called self-leadership. Manz (1986) found that some employees could lead themselves if their values and beliefs were congruent with those of the organization. Is summary, the research on substitutes for leadership suggests that leadership can be thought of as series of processes or functions that facilitate organizational and personal effectiveness. These processes or functions need not necessarily emanate from a person in a formal leadership role but may be derived from characteristics of the work being performed by the group members.
Point Convergence Among Approaches
Despire the profusion of leadership approaches and related empirical findings, Yukl (1994) noted there is some convergence in the findings from different lines of leadership research. Yukl identified three consistent themes.
Importance of influencing and Motivating. Influence is the essence of leadership. Yulk stated that leaders are heavily in involved in influencing the attitudes and behaviors of people, including subordinates, peers, and outsiders. The array of influence tactics available to a leader are all designed to induce followers to pursue selected goals and objectives. Charismatic leadership is a pronounced example of the use of influence to motivate. The result is to have followers embrace a vision, inspire commitment to its attainment, and feel a sense of ownership for the accomplishment. Situational factors exert a strong influence on the need for leaders to motivate their employees. When the tasks to be performed are stimulating and enjoyable, the need for an inspirational and influential leader is minimal.
When the tasks to be performed are frustrating and ambiguous, the need for a leader to inspire motivation is great. How leaders use power and their own personal needs effect the type of influence attempts they make. Skillful leaders provide an appealing vision for the future and inspire people to pursue it.
Importance of Maintaining Effective Relationships. Yukl asserted that leaders recognize the Importance of cooperative relationships among people and are skillful in achieving that outcome. Organizations operate more effectively when employees work within an environment of trust, loyalty, and mutual respect. Employees are more satisfied with leaders who demonstrate concern for their needs and values. A leader who exhibits diplomacy, social sensitivity, and professionalism is likely to engender those same qualities among employees. The capacity of a leader to make employees feel good about themselves and affirm their worth as contributors to the organization will likely be both well received and regarded as instrumental for the success of the company. Alternatively, leaders who regard organizations as simply arenas for their own self-enhancement are likely to alienate the very people who can make the organization be successful.
Importance of Making Decisions. Dicisions are made in the present but their consequences occur in the future. A leader who makes good decisions is skillful in shaping the future. Such talent is the hallmark of a good leader. Increases in power and influence within an organization often follow demonstrated proficiency in decision making. However, group commitment to decision is enhanced by giving group members input into the decision-making process. Some decisions are made under conditions of urgency and demand high technical expertise. Other decisions can be the product of a more deliberate analysis of information and data. Furthermore, many decisions are sequential or conditional; the decisions made at one point in time will affect the decision options available at a later time. It is typically impossible for one leader to possess all the information needed to make an informed decision. Consequently, the ability to obtain relevant information, the skill to know the differential importance of the information as it relates to a given decision, and the capacity to weigh various decision options are all critical leadership skills. Great leaders are skilled decision makers, or they know how to delegate the responsibility for decision making to others within the organization (which is a form of decision making in itself—sec Field Note 3).
Several of the traits and skills that predict leadership effectiveness are relevant for decision making. Leaders with extensive technical knowledge and cognitive skills are more likely to make high-quality decisions. These skills are important for analyzing problems, identifying causal patterns and trends, and forecasting likely outcomes of different strategies for attaining objectives. Self-confidence and tolerance for ambiguity and stress help leaders cope with the responsibility for making major decisions on the basis of incomplete information.
Zaccaro and Klimoski (2001) presented some additional requirements for successful leaders in the new economy. Among them are proficiency with political, financial, and technical matters. As was described in Chapter 5, all organizations exist in a political environment where conflicting motives and goals operate. Leaders must be skilled in understanding their resource bases within the organization and can ill afford to alienate key constituents. A successful leader is required to weld together the diverse interests and values of multiple functions (sales, human resources, finance, information technology, etc.) into a cohesive organization. Financial proficiency is often reflected in balancing short-term versus long-term economic objectives. Under constant pressure to achieve positive financial result for the organization, the leader may be tempted to select short-term courses of action that will show immediate financial results. However, the sustained economic success of the organization is achieved in the long term (years, not months). If a leader adopts a strictly long-term orientation for the company and in so doing experiences repeated short-term financial results that are judged unacceptable, the leader may be replaced. Finally, the Information Age has revolutionized the way business is conducted. Leaders must change the structure and decision-making authority of the company to be responsive to the urgency and timeliness of new information (customer needs, price changes, and so on). As Mckenna and McKenna (2002) noted, “There are organizations that have chosen to ignore, avoid, or minimize the impact of the Internet and digital technology in their business [see The Changing Nature of Work : e-Leadership].