analysts which I would count under the new
pragmatists: Forensic policy analysts and participatory
policy analysts (Hoppe 1999, 207–208).
The forensic policy analysts see a cacophony of
competing thinking styles, ideologies, paradigms,
perspectives, etc. in policy analysis, and
hence they advocate for first distinguishing
between the various sorts of frames of thinking
that can be found pertaining to a policy
problem. Then they want to create a new sort of
frame, combining plausible and robust arguments
(frame-reflection, following, for example,
Schön and Rein (1994)) into a new policy
design. This may be done with various stakeholders
and hence the barrier between analyst
and policy-maker is torn down (Guba and
Lincoln 1989; Erlandson, Harris, Skipper et al.
1993) in a creative process of finding solutions to
the problems at hand.As with Lindblom, the differences
between means and goals disappear in a
world of continuous change.
The participatory policy analyst may be in
agreement with the forensic analyst, but does
not stop with the question of how to understand
policy frames. S/he broadens the perspective
even more and emphasizes the importance
of involving citizens in the policy processes – to
include local knowledge, to make obvious
themes of ethics, or to cut through disagreements
among experts. Or, to make up for the
increase in distance between politicians and the
demos, and the strengthening of the administrative
apparatus (Fischer 2003, 15–16). Some
critics argue that the quality of the debate
and/or solution is not guaranteed by citizen
involvement. The counter question of the pragmatists
is:Who is to be the umpire of such quality?
For new pragmatists there is no absolute
standard to use as truth medium.
Analysts following the rational paradigm
cannot possibly agree with this. Followers of
Lindblom would feel closer, particularly since
science is not awarded any pedestal, but probably
they would package this form of truth
with a conception of the political process
which creates winners. Those winners, then,
are in a position to define the truth for the time
being, that is until some one else comes into
power. Cynical, maybe, but political analysis
never was for someone with a feeble heart.