This study was carried out in the Phu Koa area (PK), within Phu Kao–Phu Phan Kham National park located in the park’s upper northeastern plateau. The national park covers 318.36 km2 and lies between 16°44′–17°2′N, 102°25′–102°43′E in Nong Bua Lamphu Province, to the south of Udon Thani Province and north of Khon Kaen Province, Thailand. In PK, three village communities have been established in its central plain. These communities expanded very rapidly within the last 20 years causing the severe forest fragmentation and degradation over the plain