ter of power. The ulama wanted to maintain their status, and the mullahs, although not necessarily politically ori- ented, had a social agenda rooted in justice, which the shah was unable to co-opt as he had with other political groups. Second, the shah believed that Western-orient- ed reforms would encourage people to start thinking in secular terms, and that new ideas would inherently chal- lenge the traditional ulama. The shah failed to foresee that Western ideas could cut both ways and be wielded against autocrats as well. Yet in this turbulent environment the differences between the shah and the ulama were too great to be bridged and the shah felt compelled to take direct action against them.
The growing conflict between the shah and the ulama had a significant impact on pre-revolutionary Iran and the kinds of Islamists that emerged. The shah spent vast sums on education and scholarships abroad for Iranian students. This meant that a greater number of poor, ru- ral students had the opportunity to study outside of Iran. Although these opportunities often resulted in better eco- nomic prospects upon returning to Iran, many of these students remained conservative in their Islamic outlook. Thus, the shah’s policies, along with expanding ulama re- sistance, meant that three types of Islamists developed: Marxists (those of the far left), centrists (those open to a mix of conservative and liberal ideas), and conservatives (e.g. Khomeini). Looking back, the shah’s conflict with the ulama thus produced a diverse array of Islamist forces, which Khomeini was eventually able to connect with and direct. For Khomeini and a growing number of Islamists, radicalism was increasingly the best option for resisting the shah’s expansionist and pro-Western policies.
Similar to religious radicalism, political radicalism was spurred by pervasive social tension. This radicalism affect- ed the intelligentsia, the modern middle class, the ulama, and the more conservative, traditional middle class. Lead- ing this movement were two prominent figures: Ali Shari- ati and Khomeini. Shariati, who died in 1977, was con- sidered by many to be the true ideologue of the Islamic Revolution. As a French-educated social scientist, Shariati was highly influential among college and high school stu- dents. Khomeini, in turn, grew in stature upon his exile in 1963 and became the leader of the revolution. In addi- tion, Khomeini was the faqih (Islamic jurist) who created
the concept of Velayat-e Faqih (rule by Islamic jurists/cler- ics), which would underpin the future Islamic republic.24
How was Khomeini able to galvanize a diverse set of so- cial, political, and religious groups and what was Kho- meini’s own ideological perspective? From the beginning, Khomeini desired universal justice and felt that only an Islamic world order could achieve such a goal. In other words, the export of the revolution to the wider Islamic world was central to the revolution’s success within Iran. Moreover, only a faqih-directed Islamic republic like Iran could create sufficient space for the construction of an Islamic world order. Khomeini was thus dedicated to the ideal of bringing about justice to the whole world, not simply to Iran and the Islamic world.
Khomeini’s innovative political thought—the concept of the velayat-e faqih—is central to his goals of remaking Ira- nian society and exporting the Islamic revolution to the larger world. Traditionally, the hierarchy of power within the Shi’a community belongs to God, the Prophet Mu- hammad, and to the infallible imams (ma’sumin). How- ever, Khomeini redefined the power structure by arguing that leadership could be extended to the faqih. This altera- tion meant that in order to establish a just world order, the faqih would have temporal and spiritual authority in the absence of the Hidden Imam who will appear “at the end of time” (akhar-e zaman)25.
In many ways, the fact that Khomeini was largely able to successfully lead the Iranian Revolution and implement his social and political reforms depended not simply on the domestic factors at work. Rather, a crucial set of interna- tional developments afforded Khomeini the opportunity to implement a vision that continues to shape modern Iran.