If business ecosystems are the key to attracting the efforts from a wide range of
creative problem solvers, what are the principles of their design? Modern property
rights theory provides some insights (Hart and Moore, 1990). First, though, the
underlying technical system needs to be understood in greater detail.
Technical systems are essentially made up of components, which can be both
modules or rules (Arthur, 2009). In general, modules are present in the finished system,
while rules influence and constrain how the modules are made. One important type of
rule is standards, which specify how the modules will interoperate. Without such rules,
the system as a whole could not function.