The enthusiasm for these approaches leaves O’Toole and Meier (2004) warning of the dark side
of interorganizational networks and “desperately seeking Selznick.” Selznick’s (1966) treatise on the
Tennessee Valley Authority brought to light the problem of cooptation and serves as a founding literature
for the future development of resource dependence theory. He identifies cooptation as an
organization absorbing new elements into its policy-determining structure to avert threats to its stability
or existence. Formal cooptation occurs when an organization faces a crisis of legitimacy and
integrates outside interests formally and publicly, while informal cooptation is where organized
forces that are in a position to enforce demands are given a role in policy determination, but explicit
recognition of this position is avoided to sustain legitimacy. Cooptation will result in changes in the
character and role of organizations.