Yet, we would not suggest that these titles are deliberately misleading, because no one is going to read a paper expecting it to report results obtained from all children age 9-10 or all US teachers! We clearly expect the authors to have collected data in some classrooms, from some students, or some teachers. However, the more general references in the paper titles (and often in the way conclusions are phrased) suggest that it is assumed that the findings from the individuals studied tell us something about the wider group they are seen as being part of. There is no simple basis on which we can make such an assumption. This can be illustrated by some statements about “school pupils” that could be made based on hypothetical empirical investigations that collect data from “some” school children: