In the literature on TBLT, several attempts have been made to group tasks into
categories, as a basis for task design and description. Willis (1996) proposes six task
types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies. She labels her task examples
as follows:
1. listing
2. ordering and sorting
3. comparing
4. problem solving
5. sharing personal experiences
6. creative tasks
Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that
occurs in task accomplishment and give the following classification:
1. Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a
whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have three different parts of a story and
have to piece the story together).
2. Information-gap tasks: One student or group of students has one set of information and
another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must negotiate and
find out what the other party's information is in order to complete an activity.
3. Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of information. They
must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the
outcome.
4. Decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there are a number of
possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
S. Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do
not need to reach agreement.
Other characteristics of tasks have also been described, such as the following:
1. one-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or a
two-way exchange
2. convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different
goals
3. collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carry out a task or
compete with each other on a task
4. single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different
outcomes are possible
5. concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete
language or abstract language
6. simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex
cognitive processing
7. simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are
relatively simple or complex
8. reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real world activity or is a
pedagogical activity not found in the real world