Social Perception/ Attribution
(Adapted from Myers; Michener et al)
Social Perception
I. Intro.
A. In a study by Rosenhan, eight pseudopatients who were actually research investigators gained entry into mental hospitals by claiming to hear voices. During the intake interviews, the pseudopatients gave true accounts of their backgrounds, life experiences, and present (quite ordinary) psychological condition. They falsified only their names and their complaint of hearing voices. Once in the psychiatric ward, they ceased simulating any signs of abnormality. They reported that the voices had stopped, talked normally with other patients, and made observations in their notebooks. Although some of the other patients suspected that the investigators were not really ill, the staff did not. Even upon discharge, they were still diagnosed as schizophrenic, though now it was "schizophrenia in remission".
Rosenhan described his results to other mental hospitals, and their administrators said they could not be taken in by such a ruse. Rosenhan then told them that they would be visited by a pseudopatient in the next 3 months, and he challenged them to identify who it was. During the 3 month period, 193 patients were admitted, and the psychologists identified 41 they thought were pseudopatients. In reality, Rosenhan had not sent anybody!
B. In deciding how to classify the patients, the staff doctors were engaged in social perception. Social perception refers to the processes through which we use available information to form impressions of other people, to assess what they are like.
C. Social perceptions can obviously be flawed - even skilled observers can misperceive, misjudge, and reach the wrong conclusions. Once we form wrong impressions, they are likely to persist.
D. Key question: How do we form impressions of others? How do we combine the diverse info we receive about someone into a coherent overall impression?
II. Ordering the world
A. We often try to simplify the complex flow of incoming info by putting people into useful categories. These classifications help to specify how various objects or events are related or similar to each other.
B. Why do we classify people and things? Classifications help to serve the "knowledge" function of attitudes.
1. Simplify perception by grouping together similar experiences. We can pay attention to some stimuli while ignoring others.
EX: If we perceive a neighborhood as friendly, we can walk down the street without attending carefully to every look from every passerby.
2. Allow us to go beyond the info that is immediately available - can infer additional facts.
EX: When we recognize a discussion as a bargaining session, we infer that the participants represent groups with conflicting interests. We may also infer that the opening statements are merely initial bargaining positions, and that vicious verbal attacks do not necessarily signify personal animosity.
3. Help us know how to relate to people and object.
EX: In friendly neighborhoods, we can smile at strangers and don't have to hold on to our wallet so tightly.
EX: We can tell secrets to people who are trustworthy, and remain tight-lipped in the presence of gossips.
4. Allow us to predict behavior.
EX: A friend will help us to change a flat tire.
EX: A vegetarian will turn down a steak dinner.
C. How do we decide how to classify people and things?
1. Can classify people in any number of ways - male, midwesterner, tennis player, introvert. What determines which will be used?
a. Purposes of the perceiver. We use concepts to determine how people will affect the pursuit of our goals.
EX: Airport security guard must decide if rushing travelers are dangerous or safe, require a close search, or merely a cursory check. Hence, she classifies passersby as tourists or smugglers, terrorists or vacationers. She looks for traits that fit her concept of a potentially dangerous person.
EX: In contrast, travellers are more likely to look at each other in terms of ways that reveal the potential for rewarding interaction - age, sex, physical attractiveness, smoking habits - and classify people in terms of these things.
b. Social context. Refers to activities that are appropriate in a given setting, to the roles ordinarily enacted there, and to the people who are present. The social context strongly influences the ways we label people and their behavior.
EX: If we are at the beach, and somebody comes along wearing a swimsuit, spreads out a towel and lies down on it, we might label their behavior are "relaxation" and perhaps think the person is a vacationer. If a person did the same thing in a department store, we might think they are crazy.
c. Accessibility in memory. How easily can the classification be summoned from memory? Experience may make some classifications more accessible than others.
EX: Suppose a student learns that her roommate has broken both legs while mountain climbing. If she has recently been discussing with her parents or friends how foolhardy some students are, she may be more likely to perceive her friend as reckless than as adventurous.
D. Stereotypes
1. One way to simplify things is to organize people into groups. For each group, we have a stereotype, a fixed set of characteristics we tend to attribute to all group members. Stereotypes enable us to make quick judgments, but these are often wrong.
2. Ethnic stereotypes. May have changed - or they may just have gone underground. Substantial reported changes in stereotypes between 1932 and 1967. Compared with 1932 undergraduates, few 1967 undergrads characterized Americans as industrious or intelligent, Italians as artistic or impulsive, blacks as superstitious or lazy, and Jews as shrewd or mercenary. However, the idea that negative stereotyping is bigoted and socially undesirable has increased, so reports may be biased by attempts to hide bigotry.
3. Gender stereotypes. Males are considered more independent, dominant, aggressive, scientific, and stable in handling crises. Females are seen as more emotional, sensitive, gentle, helpful, and patient.
We also have stereotypes of feminists - one study showed feminists were assumed to be less attractive, even though that was not the case.
4. Origins of stereotypes.
a. Have some direct experiences, and then overgeneralize - a "kernel of truth". We might have an experience with a member of a group, and then assume that all member of a group share the characteristics that we know a few have.
b. Boost own self-esteem - can assert our own superiority by assuming others are inferior. "self-interested motivation"
c. Can enhance group solidarity by developing negative stereotypes of groups with which we compete.
5. Errors caused by stereotypes.
a. Lead us to assume all members of group have certain traits. EX: A professor might think that all football players are dumb, and grade accordingly. But, some football players are quite intelligent.
b. Lead us to assume that all the members of one group differ greatly from all the members of other groups. Assume they have nothing in common.
EX: Football players and ballet dancers may be thought to have nothing in common. But, in fact, in both groups, there are individuals who are patient, neurotic, hardworking, intelligent, and so on.
c. Assume the factors that distinguish between groups are also the causes of differences between groups.
EX: People may attribute the fact that whites obtain higher average scores on standard intelligence tests to race. By focusing on one salient feature, they ignore more likely causes such as socioeconomic opportunities, education, and cultural bias in tests.
III. Forming Impressions
A. Kelley did a study in which two different sketches of a guest lecturer were given to students. Sketches were identical, except that half the people were told the guest was cold and the rest were told he was warm. Those who had read that the guest professor was cold rated him as less considerate, sociable, popular, good natured, humorous, and humane than those who had read he was warm. Why did this happen?
B. People make assumptions about how personality traits are related - which ones go together and which do not. These assumptions are called Implicit Personality Theories. It is a special kind of stereotyping - we assume that warm people or cold people have particular attributes.
EX: Upon learning that a person is a pessimist, we also tend to assume she is humorless, irritable, and unpopular.
C. An IPT can be thought of as a "mental map" of the way we believe traits are related to each other. When we observe that a person has a particular trait, we assume they also possess traits that are close to it on our mental map.
Studies show traits are organized along 2 distinct positive-negative dimensions - a social good-bad dimension and an intellectual good-bad dimension. Warm and cold differ on the social dimension, lazy and industrious differ on the intellectual dimension
We tend to judge persons who have one good trait as generally good, and who have one bad trait as generally bad. This tendency to perceive personalities as clusters of either good or bad traits is called the halo effect.
D. Individual differences in IPTs. We don't all form our IPTs the same way. Our unique experiences direct our attention to particular trait categories when we form impressions.
EX: Some of us pay more attention to intelligence, others to friendliness or attractiveness. Peoples impressions reflect as much about their own modes of perception as they do about the characteristics of the person being perceived.
Suppose two people meet the same intelligent, friendly individual. If one attends more to intelligence, she is likely to form an impression that the individual is industrious, imaginative, and skillful - all traits associated with intelligence in most people's mental maps. If the other at
สังคมรับรู้ / แสดง (ดัดแปลงจากเยอร์ส Michener et al) สังคมรับรู้ I. บทนำโอกาสในการศึกษาโดย Rosenhan, pseudopatients 8 ที่งานวิจัยนักสืบได้เข้าโรงพยาบาลโรคจิต โดยอ้างว่า ได้ยินเสียงจริง ในระหว่างสัมภาษณ์บริโภค pseudopatients การให้บัญชีจริง ของพื้นหลัง ประสบการณ์ชีวิต มีสภาพจิตใจ (ค่อนข้างธรรมดา) พวกเขา falsified เพียงชื่อและร้องเรียนของพวกเขาได้ยินเสียง ครั้งเดียวในผู้ป่วยจิตเวช พวกเขาหยุดตกเลียนแบบสัญญาณของความผิดปกติใด ๆ พวกเขารายงานว่า เสียงหยุด พูดคุยปกติกับผู้ป่วยอื่น ๆ และทำการสังเกตในโน้ตของตน แม้ว่าบางส่วนของอื่นๆ ผู้ป่วยสงสัยว่า นักสืบที่ไม่ได้ป่วยจริง ๆ พนักงานไม่ แม้เมื่อปล่อย พวกเขาก็ยังวินิจฉัยว่าเป็น schizophrenic ว่าตอนนี้ มันเป็น "โรคจิตเภทในปลด" Rosenhan อธิบายผลลัพธ์ของเขาไปโรงพยาบาลโรคจิตอื่น ๆ และผู้ดูแลระบบของพวกเขากล่าวว่า พวกเขาอาจไม่ได้รับใน โดย ruse ดังกล่าว Rosenhan แล้วบอกพวกเขาว่า พวกเขาที่จะเข้าชม โดย pseudopatient เป็นได้ใน 3 เดือน และเขาท้าทายให้ระบุก็ ช่วง 3 เดือน มีการยอมรับผู้ป่วย 193 และนักจิตวิทยาที่ระบุราคา 41 ที่พวกเขาคิดว่า ถูก pseudopatients ในความเป็นจริง Rosenhan มีไม่ส่งใคร B. ในการกำหนดวิธีการจัดประเภทผู้ป่วย แพทย์พนักงานได้หมั้นในการรับรู้ทางสังคม รับรู้ทางสังคมหมายถึงกระบวนการที่เราใช้ข้อมูลที่มีการแสดงผลแบบฟอร์มของคนอื่น การประเมินคืออะไรเช่น C. อย่างชัดเจนสามารถ flawed สังคมเข้าใจ - ผู้สังเกตการณ์แม้ฝีมือสามารถ misperceive, misjudge และการเข้าถึงข้อสรุปที่ไม่ถูกต้อง เมื่อเรามีรูปแบบการแสดงผลไม่ถูกต้อง พวกเขามีแนวโน้มต่อไป D. คำถามสำคัญ: ว่าเราสร้างความประทับใจของผู้อื่นหรือไม่ เรารวมข้อมูลหลากหลายที่เราได้รับเกี่ยวกับบุคคลในภาพรวมเป็น coherent ได้อย่างไร ครั้งที่สองสั่งโลก A. เรามักจะลองไปทำขั้นตอนที่ซับซ้อนของข้อมูลขาเข้า โดยใส่คนเป็นประเภทที่มีประโยชน์ จัดประเภทเหล่านี้ช่วยให้คุณระบุวัตถุหรือเหตุการณ์ต่าง ๆ ว่าจะเกี่ยวข้อง หรือคล้ายคลึงกัน B. ทำไมทำเราแบ่งคนและสิ่งที่ การจัดประเภทให้บริการฟังก์ชั่น "ความรู้" ของทัศนคติได้ 1. ง่ายรับรู้ โดยการจัดประสบการณ์ที่คล้ายกัน เราสามารถจ่ายให้ความสนใจกับสิ่งเร้าบางอย่างในขณะที่สองคน อดีต: ถ้าเราสังเกตบริเวณใกล้เคียงเป็นมิตร เราสามารถเดินลงถนนโดยเข้าร่วมอย่างรอบคอบมองทุก passerby ทุก 2. ให้เราไปที่นอกเหนือจากข้อมูลที่พร้อมใช้งานทันที - สามารถรู้ข้อเท็จจริงเพิ่มเติม EX: เมื่อเรารู้จักการสนทนาเป็นการเซสชันเท่านั้น เรารู้ว่า ผู้เข้าร่วมเป็นตัวแทนกลุ่ม มีความสนใจความขัดแย้ง เราอาจเข้าใจว่า งบเปิดถูกเริ่มต้นเพียงตำแหน่งการต่อรองราคา และที่โจมตีทายาด้วยวาจาไม่จำเป็นต้องมีความหมายส่วนบุคคล animosity 3. ช่วยให้เรารู้วิธีการสร้างความสัมพันธ์กับบุคคลและวัตถุ EX: ในละแวกใกล้เคียงเป็นมิตร เราสามารถยิ้มที่คนแปลกหน้า และไม่จำเป็นต้องเก็บกระเป๋าสตางค์ของเราเพื่อให้แน่น อดีต: เราสามารถบอกความลับกับคนเชื่อถือได้ และยังคงอยู่ในต่อหน้าของ gossips tight-lipped 4. ช่วยให้เราสามารถทำนายลักษณะการทำงานอดีต: เพื่อนจะช่วยให้เราเปลี่ยนยางแบน อดีต: เจยังจะไปปิดเย็นสเต็ก C. เราตัดสินใจว่า จะจัดประเภทคนและสิ่งต่าง ๆ ได้อย่างวิธี 1. สามารถแบ่งประเภทคนในจำนวนวิธี - เพศชาย midwesterner เล่นเทนนิส introvert อะไรเป็นตัวกำหนดที่จะใช้หรือไม่ อ.ประสงค์ของ perceiver ที่ เราใช้แนวคิดในการกำหนดว่าบุคคลจะมีผลต่อการแสวงหาเป้าหมายของเรา EX: สนามบินรักษาความปลอดภัยต้องตัดสินใจว่า ถ้านักท่องเที่ยวท่ามกลางอันตราย หรือปลอดภัย ต้องการปิดการค้นหา หรือเพียงเผิน ๆ เครื่อง ดังนั้น เธอประมวลมาเป็นนักท่องเที่ยว หรือสมัก ผู้ก่อการร้าย หรือสโมสร เธอหาลักษณะที่เหมาะสมกับแนวคิดของเธอของบุคคลอันตราย EX: ในทางตรงกันข้าม นักท่องเที่ยวมักมองกันในแง่แสดงศักยภาพในการให้รางวัลการโต้ตอบ- อายุ เพศ ศิลปะทางกายภาพ นิสัยการสูบบุหรี่ - และจัดประเภทคนในสิ่งเหล่านี้ b. Social context. Refers to activities that are appropriate in a given setting, to the roles ordinarily enacted there, and to the people who are present. The social context strongly influences the ways we label people and their behavior. EX: If we are at the beach, and somebody comes along wearing a swimsuit, spreads out a towel and lies down on it, we might label their behavior are "relaxation" and perhaps think the person is a vacationer. If a person did the same thing in a department store, we might think they are crazy. c. Accessibility in memory. How easily can the classification be summoned from memory? Experience may make some classifications more accessible than others. EX: Suppose a student learns that her roommate has broken both legs while mountain climbing. If she has recently been discussing with her parents or friends how foolhardy some students are, she may be more likely to perceive her friend as reckless than as adventurous. D. Stereotypes1. One way to simplify things is to organize people into groups. For each group, we have a stereotype, a fixed set of characteristics we tend to attribute to all group members. Stereotypes enable us to make quick judgments, but these are often wrong. 2. Ethnic stereotypes. May have changed - or they may just have gone underground. Substantial reported changes in stereotypes between 1932 and 1967. Compared with 1932 undergraduates, few 1967 undergrads characterized Americans as industrious or intelligent, Italians as artistic or impulsive, blacks as superstitious or lazy, and Jews as shrewd or mercenary. However, the idea that negative stereotyping is bigoted and socially undesirable has increased, so reports may be biased by attempts to hide bigotry. 3. Gender stereotypes. Males are considered more independent, dominant, aggressive, scientific, and stable in handling crises. Females are seen as more emotional, sensitive, gentle, helpful, and patient. We also have stereotypes of feminists - one study showed feminists were assumed to be less attractive, even though that was not the case. 4. Origins of stereotypes. a. Have some direct experiences, and then overgeneralize - a "kernel of truth". We might have an experience with a member of a group, and then assume that all member of a group share the characteristics that we know a few have. b. Boost own self-esteem - can assert our own superiority by assuming others are inferior. "self-interested motivation" c. Can enhance group solidarity by developing negative stereotypes of groups with which we compete. 5. Errors caused by stereotypes. a. Lead us to assume all members of group have certain traits. EX: A professor might think that all football players are dumb, and grade accordingly. But, some football players are quite intelligent.
b. Lead us to assume that all the members of one group differ greatly from all the members of other groups. Assume they have nothing in common.
EX: Football players and ballet dancers may be thought to have nothing in common. But, in fact, in both groups, there are individuals who are patient, neurotic, hardworking, intelligent, and so on.
c. Assume the factors that distinguish between groups are also the causes of differences between groups.
EX: People may attribute the fact that whites obtain higher average scores on standard intelligence tests to race. By focusing on one salient feature, they ignore more likely causes such as socioeconomic opportunities, education, and cultural bias in tests.
III. Forming Impressions
A. Kelley did a study in which two different sketches of a guest lecturer were given to students. Sketches were identical, except that half the people were told the guest was cold and the rest were told he was warm. Those who had read that the guest professor was cold rated him as less considerate, sociable, popular, good natured, humorous, and humane than those who had read he was warm. Why did this happen?
B. People make assumptions about how personality traits are related - which ones go together and which do not. These assumptions are called Implicit Personality Theories. It is a special kind of stereotyping - we assume that warm people or cold people have particular attributes.
EX: Upon learning that a person is a pessimist, we also tend to assume she is humorless, irritable, and unpopular.
C. An IPT can be thought of as a "mental map" of the way we believe traits are related to each other. When we observe that a person has a particular trait, we assume they also possess traits that are close to it on our mental map.
Studies show traits are organized along 2 distinct positive-negative dimensions - a social good-bad dimension and an intellectual good-bad dimension. Warm and cold differ on the social dimension, lazy and industrious differ on the intellectual dimension
We tend to judge persons who have one good trait as generally good, and who have one bad trait as generally bad. This tendency to perceive personalities as clusters of either good or bad traits is called the halo effect.
D. Individual differences in IPTs. We don't all form our IPTs the same way. Our unique experiences direct our attention to particular trait categories when we form impressions.
EX: Some of us pay more attention to intelligence, others to friendliness or attractiveness. Peoples impressions reflect as much about their own modes of perception as they do about the characteristics of the person being perceived.
Suppose two people meet the same intelligent, friendly individual. If one attends more to intelligence, she is likely to form an impression that the individual is industrious, imaginative, and skillful - all traits associated with intelligence in most people's mental maps. If the other at
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