Some of the more usual causes of differences in group and organizational
effectiveness are also noted in Figure 1.3. 17 These and other potential causes of effectiveness
are discussed at length in subsequent chapters But the reality of organizational life is
that there are few unambiguous cause-and-effect relationships. In most instances, evaluation
judgments must take into account multiple causes and circumstances. 18
How then can managers increase and maintain individual, group, and organizational
effectiveness? The following section addresses this question by describing the nature of
managerial work