lions can be heard roaring even in dense fog. Whale and seal calls can be recorded underwater
with a hydrophone. The idea is to count calls or bursts of calls for a standard unit of time, and to
use these counts as an index of population size.
Method
In these cases it is not possible to recognise individuals from their calls, but species can be
distinguished. Stirling et al. (1983) showed that it was possible to record and distinguish calls of
ringed seals, bearded seals and walruses under the ice in the Canadian arctic. Bat detectors can
catalogue species calls automatically.
Advantages and disadvantages
The major disadvantage of all index methods is that they must be calibrated relative to absolute
abundance before they can be used reliably. Anderson (2003) has argued strongly against the use
of indices like call counts to estimate relative abundance for wildlife species. The problem is that
for many species like bats there might not be any other feasible method to use, and you then have
to decide whether a poor data set is better than no data set.
Biases
There are many sources of variation in calling rates, ranging from seasonal effects associated with
breeding (Cleator et al. 1989) to diurnal effects caused by weather factors. If bat detectors are
used, there is a problem of standardising different machines, and the key is to develop a standard
protocol to control as many of these sources of variation as possible.
Trapping
Small mammals are readily live-trapped in box traps, which is the most common method for assessing
the abundances of many mammal species. Many trap designs can be found, but three types of
live traps are most commonly used. The Longworth live trap consist of two parts, a tunnel (the
trapping mechanism) and a nest box for food and bedding (see http://www.alanaecology.com/).
Longworth traps are very expensive but have the advantage of being able to be locked in the
open position so that they can be prebaited. They can also be ordered with an optional shrew
Trapping 361
hole to permit small shrews to escape (most shrews die within a few hours in a live trap).
Sherman live traps are lightweight aluminium traps that are all one piece. Four sizes and folding
and rigid styles are available. They have the advantage of being light in weight and the folding
types of traps are easy to store and carry in the field. They have the disadvantage of being difficult