Field observations and manipulations Fisheries biologists have long observed that fishes living in current-swept habitats will associate with certain types and sizes of structure, such as boulders and woody debris, to take advantage of velocity refuges. Field observations and experimental manipulations have revealed valuable information about behaviour simply by observing preferences for structures and average flow velocities. Unfortunately, limitations in technology can lead to qualitative hydrodynamic and behavioural results, which detract from the ability to informdecisions on habitat management and modelling distribution patterns at the population level. While experiments placing geometric objects in the field have revealed that current velocity is the major variable determining microhabitat selection in streamdwelling
salmonids , there is a need to measure actual kinematics of fish suspended in natural flows before we can better understand the mechanistic effects of turbulence on stability and locomotion. Swimming kinematics are rarely recorded from the field in part because they require a dorsal or ventral camera perspective which is difficult to obtain. Most field video recordings adopt a lateral view which precludes analysis of informative kinematic variables, such as tail-beat
frequency, amplitude and body wavelength. In one exception, McLaughlin & Noakes measured swimming kinematics for wild brook trout in natural streams and reported a difference from that of fishes in laboratory flumes. Tail-beat
frequencies and amplitudes varied in response to unsteady hydrodynamic phenomena such as the boundary layer above the substrate and the inherent ebb and surge of current velocity in natural streams. Tail-beat frequency in particular was dramatically influenced by temporal and spatial flow heterogeneities and was higher than that found for fish in the
laboratory for a given swimming speed. Without these detailed descriptions of kinematics, it is difficult to determine if fish in natural habitats are simply swimming in reduced flow behind structures or if they are additionally interacting with discrete vortices in the wake of structures.