Measures. Sociodemographic variables included child’s age, sex,
and race; child-welfare-related variables including location of
placement, type of maltreatment, and prior history of involvement
with child welfare. Placement location was characterized
as in-home with child protective services, in-home without child
protective services, nonrelative foster care, or kinship care
(formal and informal). Adolescents who were placed in group or
residential settings were excluded in these analyses because of
small numbers and the fact that such settings are often intentionally
therapeutic for the outcomes examined in this study.