Babbage (1832) published the first

Babbage (1832) published the first study known that described the use of ma­chinery and the organization of human resources for production purposes. He ad­vanced the ideas of division of labor, factory size determination, profit-sharing schemes, methods of observing manufactures, and time-study methods.
Taylor (1911) studied work methods and shop management. He decomposed a factory job of a mechanical nature into a set of elementary motions, discarded unnec­essary motions, and examined the remaining motions (with stopwatch studies) to find the most efficient method and sequence of motion elements. He developed wage rates to pay workers. He came up with a "frequent resting" method to minimize the physical fatigue of workers who carried iron blocks weighing 92 pounds apiece from the factory up an inclined plank to railroad flat cars. The load transferred was subsequently in­ creased from 12.5 tons to 47.5 tons per day per worker.
Taylor was focusing on the production aspects without paying attention to the most important element in the process; namely, the workers. According to Taylor, work is divided into planning/training (a management responsibility) and rote execution (by the uneducated worker of the day). Workers were regarded as passive partners in car­rying out production orders. As a result, some U.S. managers have been "Taylorized" into thinking that they do not need the input of workers. A major deficiency of scientific management has indeed been its failure to engage workers as an active part of the overall management system. Only in recent years have empowered teams become ac­cepted as an improved organizational system over the Taylor model.
At about the same time as Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth started to em­phasize the aspects of human factors in the workplace. Meanwhile, behavioral stud­ies at Hawthorne Works of Western Electric Company (near Cicero, Illinois) were initiated in 1927 by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger of Harvard Business School to study the environmental, psychological, group, and other factors which impacted the work output.
Fayol (1949) divided the industrial undertakings into six groups: technical (pro­duction), commercial (marketing), financial, security, accounting, and administrative activities (planning/forecasting, organization, command, coordination. and control). He also developed 14 general principles of administration which have remained valid to this day.
Weber (1947) developed a model for rational and efficient organizations involv­ing position charter, roles and responsibilities, compensation policy, and other features.
According to Urwick (1972), the study of management started with engineers. It was in the sciences underlying the engineering practice-mathematics, physics, me­chanics, and so on-which were first applied by Taylor to analyzing and measuring the tasks assigned to individuals, that the science of management got started.
Management theory and practices were also studied from several other points of
view: quantitative approach (decision making is the central focus of management­ decision theory and group decision making), operations research (expressing manage­ment problems in terms of mathematical symbols and relationships), and systems approach (organizations as interacting systems influenced by the external environment).
McGregor {1957) developed the Theory X and Theory Y of management. Theory
X says that workers are passive and they are to be induced by management to con­tribute to the organizational objectives. Workers may be motivated according to
Section 1.2 Historical Development of Management Theory and Practices

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