The production of reactive oxygen species can have detrimental effects on the
mitochondrial genome, induce oxidative DNA damage, and promote micronuclei formation (25).
Furthermore, certain types of nanoparticles can induce nuclear DNA damage, leading to gene
mutations, cell-cycle arrest, cell death, or carcinogenesis. Demonstrating the latter, hydrophilic
titanium oxide nanoparticles are oncogenic in various experimental setups (26). Once in the cytoplasm,
nanoparticles will persist unless they are sorted back into the endolysosomal system where
they can be exocytosed. Nanoparticles that persist in the cytosol during mitosis will be distributed
within the daughter cells (27).However, the effect of the nanoparticles on subsequent cell generations
remains unclear.To date, there is no consensus on the toxicity and properties of nanoparticles
inside the cytoplasm. When compared with other sizes, 30-nm amorphous TiO2 and 15-nm silver
nanoparticles induce the highest generation of reactive oxygen species (28, 29).
The production of reactive oxygen species can have detrimental effects on themitochondrial genome, induce oxidative DNA damage, and promote micronuclei formation (25).Furthermore, certain types of nanoparticles can induce nuclear DNA damage, leading to genemutations, cell-cycle arrest, cell death, or carcinogenesis. Demonstrating the latter, hydrophilictitanium oxide nanoparticles are oncogenic in various experimental setups (26). Once in the cytoplasm,nanoparticles will persist unless they are sorted back into the endolysosomal system wherethey can be exocytosed. Nanoparticles that persist in the cytosol during mitosis will be distributedwithin the daughter cells (27).However, the effect of the nanoparticles on subsequent cell generationsremains unclear.To date, there is no consensus on the toxicity and properties of nanoparticlesinside the cytoplasm. When compared with other sizes, 30-nm amorphous TiO2 and 15-nm silvernanoparticles induce the highest generation of reactive oxygen species (28, 29).
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