2.1. Internal Combustion Engine. The mean-value model of an engine describes the engine behavior in a cycle averaged sense. Though it does not contain individual cylinder transient dynamics, the average of engine dynamics over several cycles provides adequate low-frequency dynamic information and it is suitable for many control problems. Figure 2 depicts a schematic of the mean-value engine model including throttle airflow dynamics, intake manifold dynamics, fuel film dynamics, engine torque production, and crankshaft dynamics.