The production of overviews of reviews involves synthesising evidence from more than one review on conditions where there are a range of interventions available. Overviews are becoming increasingly urgent as the number of reviews in particular topic areas increases. In April 2012, the output of the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group included 415 full systematic reviews and 90 protocols; with active registrations for a couple of dozen titles for reviews that are at earlier stages in their preparation. This represents a substantial amount of research evidence on many different interventions relevant to pregnancy and childbirth. The purpose of a Cochrane intervention review is to summarise evidence on the effectiveness of a particular intervention; most reviews focus on a single intervention and for many conditions a series of reviews may have been produced each focusing on a different intervention. Therefore, in order for midwives, doctors or pregnant women to make decisions about different treatment options, they may need to examine several relevant reviews. In recognition of this problem, the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group has already taken steps to summarise all of the available evidence in two areas of practice where a number of intervention reviews exist. These are interventions to induce labour, and most recently, interventions to manage pain during labour which is the subject of this Cochrane overview of reviews,[1] for which we received a UK National Institute for Health Research Engagement Award.
The pain that women experience during labour varies greatly. Some women feel little pain whilst others find the pain extremely distressing. It can be affected by many physiological and psychological factors, including fear and anxiety, prior experience and the degree of emotional support received. Most women in labour require some form of pain relief and there are many drug and drug-free interventions available which aim to relieve pain or help women cope with it better. The Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group has been reviewing the evidence on these various interventions for 20 years and, in view of the range of different interventions available and the importance of the topic, the Group has pulled together the evidence from many different systematic reviews into this overview, to provide a single accessible and usable summary document for women, their partners and those responsible for their care.
In total, the overview contains 15 Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth systematic reviews and three systematic reviews that had been published elsewhere. The pain management options include drugs such as epidurals, opioids such as pethidine, or gas and air (inhaled analgesia) and drug-free interventions such as hypnosis; labouring in water; and acupuncture. In many reviews, especially those on drug-free interventions, there were only one or two trials that provided data which could be included in the analysis.
We divided the different pain management interventions into three different categories, according to the volume and quality of evidence for each. These three categories were: “What works”; “What may work” and “Insufficient evidence to make a judgement.” In terms of “What works”, we found that epidurals, including combined spinal epidural and gas and air effectively manage pain in labour, but may give rise to adverse effects. Women receiving gas and air were more likely to experience vomiting, nausea and dizziness; while epidurals increased the number of vaginal births needing forceps or ventouse. Epidurals also increased the risk of low blood pressure for the woman, as well as other adverse effects such as being unable to pass urine and hindering movement of her legs.
Moving to the “What may work” category, we found that there is some evidence to suggest drug-free interventions such as immersion in water, acupuncture and massage may improve management of labour pain, with few adverse effects. However, evidence on these interventions was mainly limited to single trials. For other pain management options such as hypnosis, sterile water injection or opioids such as pethidine, there was insufficient evidence to make a judgement on their overall effectiveness.
In summary, most drug-free methods of pain management are non-invasive and appear to be safe for the mother and baby; but their effectiveness is unclear because of a lack of reliable evidence from research studies. There is more evidence to support the use of drugs, but alongside their beneficial effects, one must consider their known adverse effects. For example, an epidural provides effective pain relief but at the cost of increased medical intervention, such as the higher incidence of instrumental vaginal birth.
Looking to the future, in order to improve the evidence base and to resolve these remaining uncertainties, further trials are needed, particularly for drug-free methods of pain management. These trials also need to take a more standardised approach to the measurement and reporting of outcomes. A major challenge in compiling this overview, and in doing the individual systematic reviews on which it is based, is the variation in use of different outcome measures; and some important outcomes have simply not been assessed in trials. As an example, despite concerns for 30 years or more about the effects on the baby of using opioids during labour and the influence of these drugs on breastfeeding, only two out of 57 trials of opioids reported breastfeeding as an outcome. We therefore strongly recommend that the outcome measures, agreed through wide consultation for this project, are used in future trials of pain management.
This overview provides a summary of various pain management options available during labour, and of the existing evidence supporting their use. We suggest that women may wish to discuss the findings of this overview with their doctor or midwife in order to create a birth plan best suited to them, remembering the importance of tailoring the methods used to an individual woman's wishes, needs and circumstances.
ภาพรวมของรีวิวจากการผลิตเกี่ยวข้องกับหลักฐาน synthesising จากมากกว่าหนึ่งการตรวจสอบสภาพมีช่วงของการแทรกแซง ภาพรวมจะกลายเป็นเร่งด่วนมากขึ้นเป็นจำนวนรีวิวเฉพาะพื้นที่หัวข้อเพิ่ม ในเดือน 2012 เมษายน ผลลัพธ์ของขั้นตั้งครรภ์และคลอดบุตร กลุ่มรวม 415 รีวิวเต็มรูปแบบระบบและโปรโตคอล 90 มีการลงทะเบียนใช้งานอยู่สำหรับคู่ของชื่อเรื่องสำหรับรีวิวที่อยู่ในระยะเตรียมการ นี้แสดงยอดเงินพบหลักฐานงานวิจัยในหลายต่าง ๆ งานวิจัยที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการตั้งครรภ์และคลอดบุตร วัตถุประสงค์ของการทบทวนขั้นแทรกแซงคือ หลักฐานเกี่ยวกับประสิทธิผลของการขัดจังหวะโดยเฉพาะ summarise ส่วนใหญ่รีวิว เน้นการแทรกแซงที่เดียว สำหรับเงื่อนไขอาจได้รับชุดของรีวิวผลิตแต่ละกำลังแทรกแซงต่าง ๆ ดังนั้น การ midwives แพทย์ หรือหญิงตั้งครรภ์เพื่อการตัดสินใจเกี่ยวกับตัวเลือกการรักษาที่แตกต่างกัน พวกเขาอาจจำเป็นต้องรีวิวหลายที่เกี่ยวข้องตรวจสอบ รับปัญหา ขั้นตั้งครรภ์และคลอดบุตร กลุ่มได้แล้วขั้นตอนการ summarise ทั้งหมดของหลักฐานมีในสองพื้นที่การปฏิบัติที่มีจำนวนรีวิวจากการแทรกแซง เหล่านี้เป็นงานวิจัยเพื่อก่อให้เกิดแรงงาน และล่าสุด งานวิจัยการจัดการความเจ็บปวดระหว่างแรงงานซึ่งเป็นเรื่องของภาพรวมของรีวิว, [1] ที่เรารับเป็น สถาบันแห่งชาติของสหราชอาณาจักรสำหรับสุขภาพวิจัยหมั้นรางวัลขั้นนี้The pain that women experience during labour varies greatly. Some women feel little pain whilst others find the pain extremely distressing. It can be affected by many physiological and psychological factors, including fear and anxiety, prior experience and the degree of emotional support received. Most women in labour require some form of pain relief and there are many drug and drug-free interventions available which aim to relieve pain or help women cope with it better. The Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group has been reviewing the evidence on these various interventions for 20 years and, in view of the range of different interventions available and the importance of the topic, the Group has pulled together the evidence from many different systematic reviews into this overview, to provide a single accessible and usable summary document for women, their partners and those responsible for their care.In total, the overview contains 15 Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth systematic reviews and three systematic reviews that had been published elsewhere. The pain management options include drugs such as epidurals, opioids such as pethidine, or gas and air (inhaled analgesia) and drug-free interventions such as hypnosis; labouring in water; and acupuncture. In many reviews, especially those on drug-free interventions, there were only one or two trials that provided data which could be included in the analysis.We divided the different pain management interventions into three different categories, according to the volume and quality of evidence for each. These three categories were: “What works”; “What may work” and “Insufficient evidence to make a judgement.” In terms of “What works”, we found that epidurals, including combined spinal epidural and gas and air effectively manage pain in labour, but may give rise to adverse effects. Women receiving gas and air were more likely to experience vomiting, nausea and dizziness; while epidurals increased the number of vaginal births needing forceps or ventouse. Epidurals also increased the risk of low blood pressure for the woman, as well as other adverse effects such as being unable to pass urine and hindering movement of her legs.Moving to the “What may work” category, we found that there is some evidence to suggest drug-free interventions such as immersion in water, acupuncture and massage may improve management of labour pain, with few adverse effects. However, evidence on these interventions was mainly limited to single trials. For other pain management options such as hypnosis, sterile water injection or opioids such as pethidine, there was insufficient evidence to make a judgement on their overall effectiveness.In summary, most drug-free methods of pain management are non-invasive and appear to be safe for the mother and baby; but their effectiveness is unclear because of a lack of reliable evidence from research studies. There is more evidence to support the use of drugs, but alongside their beneficial effects, one must consider their known adverse effects. For example, an epidural provides effective pain relief but at the cost of increased medical intervention, such as the higher incidence of instrumental vaginal birth.Looking to the future, in order to improve the evidence base and to resolve these remaining uncertainties, further trials are needed, particularly for drug-free methods of pain management. These trials also need to take a more standardised approach to the measurement and reporting of outcomes. A major challenge in compiling this overview, and in doing the individual systematic reviews on which it is based, is the variation in use of different outcome measures; and some important outcomes have simply not been assessed in trials. As an example, despite concerns for 30 years or more about the effects on the baby of using opioids during labour and the influence of these drugs on breastfeeding, only two out of 57 trials of opioids reported breastfeeding as an outcome. We therefore strongly recommend that the outcome measures, agreed through wide consultation for this project, are used in future trials of pain management.This overview provides a summary of various pain management options available during labour, and of the existing evidence supporting their use. We suggest that women may wish to discuss the findings of this overview with their doctor or midwife in order to create a birth plan best suited to them, remembering the importance of tailoring the methods used to an individual woman's wishes, needs and circumstances.
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