Ashby (1987) identifies three types of participatory approaches in agricultural research that led to
three types of post-research management patterns by farmers.
1) Process-nominal participatory approaches involved farmers through asking their opinion to verify
researcher findings. There may also be consultation with farmers or locals so that the researchers can
better adapt this context into the research design in future research. There is little capacity built for
post-research decision making by farmers
2) Consultative participation. Farmers are consulted in the research process, and farmers sometimes
carry out research. The scientist always manages the research process. Likewise, farmers/locals are
unlikely to gain capacity for decision making when the researchers are not in the area.
3) Farmer decision-making. Farmer/locals help to develop research design and methodology. This
methodology builds decision-making capacity. It is more likely to lead to change of behavior by
locals/farmers, as they develop, learn and test new skills themselves. In the case of pesticides, the
farmers were not burdened by needing to consult with experts—they had learned decision-making
skills in the process.