In terms of ongoing operational issues (rather than purely market entry decisions), Doherty and Quinn (1999) note that the nature of retailing might require greater adaptation of the marketing mix and also more scope to lapse from quality standards. To reduce these risks, the authors argue that formal contracts can help, as can the use of master=area franchising and joint venture franchising compared to direct franchising (i.e., franchisees report to the franchisor) or direct investment (i.e., company-owned foreign units). As a limitation, the ongoing operational issues need further development when comparing international franchising versus other entry modes and for making choices about franchising type within the umbrella of international franchising options.