Method
The study was conducted after ethics approval from the University of Sydney and the regional education office to which the school reported. Written informed consent was collected from participating teachers and parents of children who took part.
Participants
Participants were 20 children ages 5 to 7 years who attended a mainstream suburban primary school in western Sydney, Australia. The school was affiliated with the Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney. Data on socioeconomic status of the children were not gathered, but the postal code of the school places it in a middle-class area (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001). Children were recommended for participation by teachers, who were asked to identify children with a range of strengths and needs. Six of the children were boys.
In addition, 9 female teachers who were on the play-ground roster at the same school were interviewed regarding their perceptions of the effects of loose-part materials on children’s play. Potential participants were identified and approached by the school principal. The principal was asked to approach teachers whom she believed would be broadly representative of the opinions held by the 30 staff members at the school. Teachers varied in age and years of experience, ranging from 2 young teachers in their late 20s who had
taught approximately 5 years to 1 teacher in her early 50s who had taught for more than 20 years.
Instrument
The ToP is an observational assessment administered by an unobtrusive rater during a 15-min sample of free play in a familiar environment with familiar peers. Playfulness is rated on 30 items, using a 4-point (0–3) scale that reflects extent, intensity, or skill. The ToP has been shown in numerous studies to have adequate evidence for reliability and validity (e.g., Bundy et al., 2001).
Procedures
Unless wet weather forced indoor play, children spent an extended lunchtime on the “junior playground” with approximately 150 other children of a similar age. The inter-vention consisted of the introduction of loose parts or scrounge materials to the junior playground for one and one-half terms (11 weeks of school time) during winter (average daytime temperature around 60 °F). Materials were items not conventionally considered to be play things for children, including car and bicycle tires, hay bales wrapped in plastic, cardboard boxes, plastic barrels and water contain-ers, lengths of tubing, pieces of fabric, sacks stuffed with foam, crates, wooden planks, trash can lids, and strips of foam. Materials were regularly changed during the study period; new materials were added to ensure continued nov-elty, and materials that were broken or identified by teachers as being of concern with regard to safety were removed. The latter included plastic items that produced splinters and wooden planks, which, although no incidents were reported, were of concern to teachers regarding their potential as weapons.
The playground itself was typical for a Sydney school. It was approximately 60 sq yd of asphalt, bordered by large trees at intervals of approximately 5 yd, with benches between the trees. Beyond the trees on one side of the playground was a stretch of grass 80 × 20 yd on a shallow downward incline. Children were allowed to play on the grass in groups of two or three classes per recess or lunchtime, provided the grass was not wet from rain, in which case it was considered out of bounds.
Children also were given access to a “ball bag”—a sack that contained a selection of balls and skipping ropes. Fixed play equipment, consisting of a climbing frame with ladders, monkey bars, and walkways, was located in one corner of the asphalt area. In compliance with Australian safety standards, soft surfacing consisting of sand covered by fabric was pro-vided under the play equipment and to a distance of approxi-mately 8 ft beyond. Also in compliance with those standards,
524_
hay bales, which had the potential to be stacked to a height of more than 20 in., had to remain on the soft surface around the fixed play equipment. Other materials were permitted to be taken anywhere on the playground.
Children were on the playground for approximately 55 min at lunch; this included 20 to 30 min of uninterrupted play. Two teachers were on playground duty at any given time, and there was a changeover in duty halfway through lunchtime. Teachers were briefed at a staff meeting before the project began; they were told that the research was aimed at encouraging children to become more active and interac-tive on the playground. Teachers had been asked by the school principal not to intervene in children’s play unless children’s safety was at risk.
Data Collection
Fifteen-minute video segments were taken of each child during lunchtime before the playground was changed and at the end of the 11 weeks. Children wore radio micro-phones to enable their speech to be taken into account in scoring the ToP. Each video segment was scored in random order by a single calibrated rater who was unaware of the purpose of the study.
Interviews examined teachers’ perceptions of the intro-duction of play materials on the playground, including its impact on children’s play. Before carrying out interviews with teachers, the interviewer reviewed methods of face-to-face interviewing (Patton, 2002) and received feedback regarding her interviewing technique and use of probes to reduce the risk of bias during data collection. After the mate-rials had been on the playground for 6 weeks, teachers were interviewed in a quiet room at the school. Seven interviews were carried out with individual teachers; an eighth interview was carried out with two teachers together. At that point, theoretical saturation had occurred. That is, no new informa-tion was forthcoming.
Interviews ran for between 15 and 30 min and were audiotaped. Interviews followed a semistructured format; that is, different formulations of the same basic questions were asked of all interviewees, and points of interest were followed up on an individual basis. The same researcher conducted all interviews. She reflected on each interview at its completion and used the data to assist with the formula-tion of improved questions as she went along. Interviews usually started with a question about participants’ general impressions of the play materials. Further questions related to teachers’ perceptions of changes in levels of children’s activity, social and creative play, and safety. In conclusion, teachers were asked whether they had ideas for improving the selection of materials on offer to children.
วิธีการการศึกษาได้ดำเนินการหลังจากอนุมัติจริยธรรมจากมหาวิทยาลัยซิดนีย์และสำนักงานภูมิภาคศึกษาที่โรงเรียนรายงาน แจ้งความยินยอมเป็นลายลักษณ์อักษรรวบรวมจากทั้งครูและผู้ปกครองของเด็กที่ใช้เวลาส่วนหนึ่งผู้เข้าร่วมผู้เข้าร่วม 20 เด็กอายุ 5-7 ปีที่เข้าร่วมเรียนหลักชานเมืองหลักในซิดนีย์ ออสเตรเลียตะวันตก ได้ โรงเรียนที่สังกัด Archdiocese คาทอลิกของซิดนีย์ ข้อมูลสถานะประชากรของเด็กไม่ได้ถูกรวบรวม แต่รหัสไปรษณีย์ของโรงเรียนวางไว้ในพื้นที่ชั้นกลาง (ออสเตรเลียสำนักสถิติ 2001) เด็กคำแนะนำสำหรับการเข้าร่วม โดยครู ที่ถูกขอให้ระบุเด็กที่ มีช่วงของจุดแข็งและความต้องการ 6 เด็กชายได้นอกจากนี้ ครูหญิง 9 คนสมาชิกเราเล่นที่โรงเรียนเดียวกัน ได้สัมภาษณ์เกี่ยวกับความเข้าใจผลของวัสดุหลวมส่วนการเล่น ผู้เรียนมีศักยภาพได้ระบุ และทาบทาม โดยครูใหญ่โรงเรียน หลักถูกขอร้องให้ครูวิธีที่เธอเชื่อทั่วไปจะเป็นตัวแทนของความคิดเห็นที่จัดขึ้น โดยพนักงาน 30 โรงเรียน ครูผู้สอนแตกต่างกันในอายุและประสบการณ์ ตั้งแต่ 2 หนุ่มครูในวัย 20 สายที่มีสอนประมาณ 5 ปีกับครู 1 ในผสมของเธอช่วงที่มีสอนมากกว่า 20 ปีInstrumentThe ToP is an observational assessment administered by an unobtrusive rater during a 15-min sample of free play in a familiar environment with familiar peers. Playfulness is rated on 30 items, using a 4-point (0–3) scale that reflects extent, intensity, or skill. The ToP has been shown in numerous studies to have adequate evidence for reliability and validity (e.g., Bundy et al., 2001).ProceduresUnless wet weather forced indoor play, children spent an extended lunchtime on the “junior playground” with approximately 150 other children of a similar age. The inter-vention consisted of the introduction of loose parts or scrounge materials to the junior playground for one and one-half terms (11 weeks of school time) during winter (average daytime temperature around 60 °F). Materials were items not conventionally considered to be play things for children, including car and bicycle tires, hay bales wrapped in plastic, cardboard boxes, plastic barrels and water contain-ers, lengths of tubing, pieces of fabric, sacks stuffed with foam, crates, wooden planks, trash can lids, and strips of foam. Materials were regularly changed during the study period; new materials were added to ensure continued nov-elty, and materials that were broken or identified by teachers as being of concern with regard to safety were removed. The latter included plastic items that produced splinters and wooden planks, which, although no incidents were reported, were of concern to teachers regarding their potential as weapons.The playground itself was typical for a Sydney school. It was approximately 60 sq yd of asphalt, bordered by large trees at intervals of approximately 5 yd, with benches between the trees. Beyond the trees on one side of the playground was a stretch of grass 80 × 20 yd on a shallow downward incline. Children were allowed to play on the grass in groups of two or three classes per recess or lunchtime, provided the grass was not wet from rain, in which case it was considered out of bounds.Children also were given access to a “ball bag”—a sack that contained a selection of balls and skipping ropes. Fixed play equipment, consisting of a climbing frame with ladders, monkey bars, and walkways, was located in one corner of the asphalt area. In compliance with Australian safety standards, soft surfacing consisting of sand covered by fabric was pro-vided under the play equipment and to a distance of approxi-mately 8 ft beyond. Also in compliance with those standards,524_ hay bales, which had the potential to be stacked to a height of more than 20 in., had to remain on the soft surface around the fixed play equipment. Other materials were permitted to be taken anywhere on the playground.Children were on the playground for approximately 55 min at lunch; this included 20 to 30 min of uninterrupted play. Two teachers were on playground duty at any given time, and there was a changeover in duty halfway through lunchtime. Teachers were briefed at a staff meeting before the project began; they were told that the research was aimed at encouraging children to become more active and interac-tive on the playground. Teachers had been asked by the school principal not to intervene in children’s play unless children’s safety was at risk.Data CollectionFifteen-minute video segments were taken of each child during lunchtime before the playground was changed and at the end of the 11 weeks. Children wore radio micro-phones to enable their speech to be taken into account in scoring the ToP. Each video segment was scored in random order by a single calibrated rater who was unaware of the purpose of the study.Interviews examined teachers’ perceptions of the intro-duction of play materials on the playground, including its impact on children’s play. Before carrying out interviews with teachers, the interviewer reviewed methods of face-to-face interviewing (Patton, 2002) and received feedback regarding her interviewing technique and use of probes to reduce the risk of bias during data collection. After the mate-rials had been on the playground for 6 weeks, teachers were interviewed in a quiet room at the school. Seven interviews were carried out with individual teachers; an eighth interview was carried out with two teachers together. At that point, theoretical saturation had occurred. That is, no new informa-tion was forthcoming.Interviews ran for between 15 and 30 min and were audiotaped. Interviews followed a semistructured format; that is, different formulations of the same basic questions were asked of all interviewees, and points of interest were followed up on an individual basis. The same researcher conducted all interviews. She reflected on each interview at its completion and used the data to assist with the formula-tion of improved questions as she went along. Interviews usually started with a question about participants’ general impressions of the play materials. Further questions related to teachers’ perceptions of changes in levels of children’s activity, social and creative play, and safety. In conclusion, teachers were asked whether they had ideas for improving the selection of materials on offer to children.
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