Sabatier's criticisms were well couched and thoughtful, even though not always to the point of those who used the policy process/stages metaphor. The primary shortcoming, according to Ronald Brunner (1991), is that Sabatier's criticisms reflected a worrisomely narrow use of empirical (e.g., a use conducive to specific hypothesis creation and prediction) theory; it overlooks the presence of what Lasswell called a central theory, which helps integrate (N.B. not necessarily predict) policy events. As Brunner (1991, p. 7o) posited, "An adequate body of central theory-composed of concepts as well as normative and empirical propositions-has been available for some time." Later, Brunner (1991, pp 80-81) was even more explicit: "The purpose of the policy sciences as ‘science’ is to realize more of the potential for free choice through the sharing of insight [i.e., central theory]. The purpose is not prediction" (emphasis in original).
5. "The stages metaphor inappropriately emphasizes the policy cycle as the temporal unit of analysis." In other words, it neglects the concept of a system of intergovernmental relations.
6. "The stages metaphor fails to provide a good vehicle for integrating the roles of policy analysis and policy-oriented learning throughout the public policy process. "