Conclusion
Propaganda theory research is not a cohesive body of work. This is a detriment to the discipline. Scholars have been unable to agree upon or clearly explicate the differences between legitimate persuasion and illegitimate propaganda (Youngerman, 1953). Broad stroke definitions have only provided an understanding of the production of propaganda. Classical propaganda theory clearly has practical application which can be seen in the public relations discipline (Bernays, 1928, 1942). Its failing has been in its inability to provide critical judgments. Key components lacking in classical propaganda theory are ethics and audience effect. Classical propaganda views ethics based on product and not in the creation of messages. This is a clear flaw especially for pedagogical purposes. Hegemonic propaganda theory is not without its significant flaws. It does not account for rhetorical skill or audience perception. Herman (2000) acknowledges the lack of audience focus and tries to justify the model as about “how the media work, not how effective they are” (p. 107).
If these theories hope to play a part in the future of academic research, then these deficiencies must be addressed. The media landscape is being dominated by fewer and more powerful corporations and governments. Public opinion is increasingly constructed by rhetors that are unconcerned with facts and more concerned with deception. The public debate is being dominated by what Frankfurt (2005) calls bullshit. Our duty to students and the public is to offer critical insights into these manipulative messages. This will allow us to educate future communicators in their responsibilities to the audience and enhance media literacy for a vulnerable public.