As is so often the case with rapid financial sector liberalization, the government=s
capacity to regulate and supervise these transactions did not keep pace. At the same time, the
banking system was unable to allocate the greatly increased flows on an efficient basis. Bank loan quality began to deteriorate, though not catastrophically . Some banks were undercapitalized ,
non-performing loans were rising gradually, and many basic prudential regulations (such as
lending to affiliated companies) were regularly broken, with little penalty. There is little doubt
that these weaknesses in the financial sector were a key precondition of the crisis. These problems
were especially severe in Thailand. But were these problems, in and of themselves, severe enough
to warrant a crisis of the magnitude that actually took place in so many countries? Our view is
negative.
Several pre-crisis indicators suggested that banks in Indonesia and Malaysia were actually
stronger in 1997 than they had been just a few years earlier. For example, average nonperforming
loans actually fell between 1994 and 1996 from 12% to 9% in Indonesia (and even
more sharply for privately-owned Indonesian banks), and from 8% to 4% in Malaysia, according
to data from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS, 1997). While these indicators are
themselves flawed (bad debts often aren=t recognized, or reported, until macroeconomic
difficulties hits), they do undercut the view that Asian banks were recklessly in trouble on the eve
of the crisis. Indonesian banks, unlike banks in the rest of the region, had borrowed very little
offshore, and domestic bank lending had increased only modestly in the early 1990s. Barry
Bosworth (1998) reports an index of bank strength based on 1996 ratings of commercial banks by
Moody=s Investor Services which indicates that there was little to distinguish the quality of banks
in the Asian crisis economies from non-crisis emerging markets.
In the case of Brazil, few analysts point to the banking sector as a core cause of the
current crisis. Strikingly, and in sharp contrast to Asia, the IMF program in Brazil does not
require any banking reforms, instead focussing almost exclusively on fiscal policy. And yet, Brazil
was subject to a rapid reversal in foreign capital flows and has at several points been on the verge
of a full-blown crisis. Thus, weak financial systems provide part of the story in Asia, but do not
fully explain the Asian crisis, and are still less a general explanation of sharp reversals of capital
flows into emerging markets.
Exchange rate policies surely exacerbated Asia=s problems. Governments in each of the
crisis countries kept their exchange rates fixed (or changed them at very predictable rates) in the
early 1990s, and gave every indication that these policies would remain intact in the future. These
policies helped encourage short-term capital inflows, since investors perceived little likelihood of
a loss from exchange rate movements. They also kept the prices of tradable goods and services
relatively fixed, while the prices of non-tradable goods and services (especially construction and
property) rose as a result of the investment boom. As a consequence, the real exchange rate
(measured as the ratio of the prices of tradables to nontradables) began to gradually appreciate
(that is, the ratio fell). Several studies have attempted to estimate the extent of the overvaluation
of the Asian currencies in early 1997. Although methodologies and data sources differ somewhat,
most analyses suggest that currencies became modestly overvalued, especially between 1994 and
1996.
Our own estimates suggest overvaluation of about 20% in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia,
As is so often the case with rapid financial sector liberalization, the government=scapacity to regulate and supervise these transactions did not keep pace. At the same time, thebanking system was unable to allocate the greatly increased flows on an efficient basis. Bank loan quality began to deteriorate, though not catastrophically . Some banks were undercapitalized ,non-performing loans were rising gradually, and many basic prudential regulations (such aslending to affiliated companies) were regularly broken, with little penalty. There is little doubtthat these weaknesses in the financial sector were a key precondition of the crisis. These problemswere especially severe in Thailand. But were these problems, in and of themselves, severe enoughto warrant a crisis of the magnitude that actually took place in so many countries? Our view isnegative.Several pre-crisis indicators suggested that banks in Indonesia and Malaysia were actuallystronger in 1997 than they had been just a few years earlier. For example, average nonperformingloans actually fell between 1994 and 1996 from 12% to 9% in Indonesia (and evenmore sharply for privately-owned Indonesian banks), and from 8% to 4% in Malaysia, accordingto data from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS, 1997). While these indicators arethemselves flawed (bad debts often aren=t recognized, or reported, until macroeconomicdifficulties hits), they do undercut the view that Asian banks were recklessly in trouble on the eveof the crisis. Indonesian banks, unlike banks in the rest of the region, had borrowed very littleoffshore, and domestic bank lending had increased only modestly in the early 1990s. BarryBosworth (1998) reports an index of bank strength based on 1996 ratings of commercial banks byMoody=s Investor Services which indicates that there was little to distinguish the quality of banksin the Asian crisis economies from non-crisis emerging markets.In the case of Brazil, few analysts point to the banking sector as a core cause of thecurrent crisis. Strikingly, and in sharp contrast to Asia, the IMF program in Brazil does notrequire any banking reforms, instead focussing almost exclusively on fiscal policy. And yet, Brazilwas subject to a rapid reversal in foreign capital flows and has at several points been on the vergeof a full-blown crisis. Thus, weak financial systems provide part of the story in Asia, but do notfully explain the Asian crisis, and are still less a general explanation of sharp reversals of capitalflows into emerging markets.Exchange rate policies surely exacerbated Asia=s problems. Governments in each of thecrisis countries kept their exchange rates fixed (or changed them at very predictable rates) in theearly 1990s, and gave every indication that these policies would remain intact in the future. Thesepolicies helped encourage short-term capital inflows, since investors perceived little likelihood ofa loss from exchange rate movements. They also kept the prices of tradable goods and servicesrelatively fixed, while the prices of non-tradable goods and services (especially construction andproperty) rose as a result of the investment boom. As a consequence, the real exchange rate(measured as the ratio of the prices of tradables to nontradables) began to gradually appreciate(that is, the ratio fell). Several studies have attempted to estimate the extent of the overvaluationof the Asian currencies in early 1997. Although methodologies and data sources differ somewhat,most analyses suggest that currencies became modestly overvalued, especially between 1994 and1996. Our own estimates suggest overvaluation of about 20% in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia,
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