These impairments and behavior changes caused by malaria in pregnancy, it was found, were associated with lower levels of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine - the major neurotransmitters in specific regions of the brain. The excessive production of C5a - a potent inflammatory peptide - has already been identified in previous studies as a critical mediator of placental and fetal injury in a noninfectious mouse model of spontaneous miscarriage.