Because the opening procedures, although complex, are rather standardized-taking out appendixes in a hospital, teaching the American Motors case in a business school, doing an audit in an accounting firm-each professional can work independently of his or her colleagues, with the assurance that much of the necessary coordination will be effected automatically through standardization of skills. Thus a colleague of mine observed a five-hour open heart operation in which the surgeon and anesthesiologist never exchanged a single word!