device, involving a conditional statement. In fact by the use of the objection the principle could be seen as allowing any utterance at all to be true or false. The 1946 introduction reports the objection and reformulates the Verification Principle. Unfortunately however this reformulation is open to a related objection. If the objection is very much a logician's and invites the idea that it can be avoided by some further contrivance, this was not clearly demonstrated.
The discussion of precise formulations of Ayer's principle and objections to them is of interest and importance but cannot be set out here. Your best course of action reading here and elsewhere is to turn to the best book on this philosophy A. J. Ayer (1985) by John Foster. Its first chapter sets out clearly the details and possibilities with respect to precise understandings of the Verification Principle. Is it possible to think that there must be an understanding that is precise and has the right consequences? I am inclined to that view for a reason that you can anticipate. To the extent that the Verification Principle is a concluding generalization rather than a premise it presumably is possible to state it explicitly in a way that makes it entirely distinct from the generalization that all utterances are true or false. To think that any attempt must fail in this way would be remarkable. Care will have to be taken in the descriptions of metaphysics, morals and religion that go into the statement of the principle, care in specifying what is included in them, but that is to be expected. It could be too happily that some utterances say about other minds or the thoughts and feelings of others other minds or about the past turn out not to be condemned by the principle. Some philosophers have objected that they are and taken this to be a great objection to the principle. We shall return in a way to Language, Truth and Logic. To turn now to two other books The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge and The Problem of Knowledge they take their departure from an argument that has run through much of the history of philosophy. It can be found in some form in the dusty archives of ancient Greek philosophy.
It is an argument that has run more particularly through that large part of philosophy that has to do with the question of the nature of the reality of which we have experience as distinct from any reality that is a matter of only theory. The part of philosophy in question can as readily and properly be described secondly as having to do with our knowledge by way of sense experience. So this is epistemology as well as what has been identified by Peter Strawson as descriptive or analytic as against speculative or revisionary metaphysics. Or thirdly rather to understate its claims and pretension this is the part of philosophy that consists in the problem of perception the analysis of our seeing hearing and so on. The argument in question, you might say, has to do with what we actually experience as against what we habitually if unreflectively take ourselves to experience. What you actually experience, you can say, with respect to this very page you are reading is different at different times, depending on light conditions and on the position of your head in relation to it. At the simplest level the shape or approximate geometrical figure of what you have is different on different occasions depending on your relative position. It seems plain that these various experienced things since they are different must somehow not be one thing. Other examples can be added. There is as we say the stick that looks bent in water but straight out of it. To turn to other modes of sense perception, there is the different warmth of the water in the basin to a cold hand, and the different sound of a voice or a train to someone whose hearing is impaired. But is not the page itself one thing is that material thing not one thing So with the stick and so on. Does it follow then that we do not perceive or experience physical things
Suppose, with respect to the page, that it is said that our being at one particular angle to it gives us something we can call the page as it is, or the page itself, as distinct from something we can call a look of the page. The trouble is that there seems no difference in kind or type between the fact of experience owed to a particular angle and facts of experience owed to other angles. It is not as if there was a confirming click so to speak a message on the screen, when we see the page as strictly rectangular. Rather there is what seems to be perfect continuity of sort or type between all of our different views or experiences of the page.To the ordinary facts at least tending in the direction of the idea that we do not experience physical objects can be added other reflections. One which has much to do with the argument in question being known as the argument from illusion does not concern ordinary perception but rather complete hallucination. Hallucinations do indeed occur but we can usefully think of your hallucination, while in a completely dark room or away from all pages of seeing before you what you do in fact now see as we say this page of this book. In this case of hallucination it seems your experience would or could be indistinguishable by you from what we call your actually seeing the page now. There could be no difference at all. That is what you experienced in the dark room would have properties qualitatively identical to what you are now actually experinencing. The conclusion of the argument from illusion to come finally to one statement of it is that what we ordinarily experience, what we get by way of sense perception is not reality. What we get is not what we call physical things material objects for the several reasons.
There is but one of those that we both are said to perceive when, as we say, we see this page from different angles. The page itself surely does not change its shape under different conditions of perception. The reality itself of the temperature of the water does not depend on and vary with temperatures of my hand. And to come round to the complete hallucination or possible hallucination, where there is no page at all something is experienced. It is not that there is no experience, that there is an experience of nothing. As remarked what is experienced is in no way different from ordinarily seeing a page. What was experienced in the hallucination was not a page and it follows that what you are now experiencing is not a page either. What you are now experiencing to give it a name is a sense-datum.The argument from illusion can be taken to issue in a bundle of questions. They can be arranged in a kind of ascending order. What is it really to do what we call see or otherwise perceive something What do we actually experience and how is this sense datum related to what we call reality, or at any rate ordinary reality? Are the things we experience, including the look of the page or the page as it looks to me now the foundations of our knowledge of other things, the physical or material things that make up the external world? Are they necessary foundations? Are our beliefs in our sense-data certain indubitable or incorrigible, unlike our beliefs in physical objects? Is there a closer relation than that of premise and conclusion between the things we experience and the other things? A different relation than premise and conclusion? That bundle of questions can only be answered after others, prior questions often slid by as they were above are considered first. What you heard before the bundle of questions was posed, the account of the argument from illusion, is itself thick with prior questions. To go back to the beginning of the account what is it to actually experience something and what is it just to experience something? And what we experience exactly to what do those words refer? A little further on in the account, what is the page as it is? What is the fact of experience? How are we to understand these things? There are also other questions left open. In the two books, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge and The Problem of Knowledge, Ayer carries forward what is surely the finest inquiry of his century into these matters. They are matters that are not at all simple. Certainly he makes advances on the clarity of Hume and of John Stuart Mill and on the Vienna Circle of Logical Positivists. He also brings into better and quicker focus certain lines of thought in the work of his contemporary H. H. Price. If I may revert in passing to the subject of the man rather than his work the credit he gives to Price is the action of a honest man. Authors have managed to conceal debts to one another before now. The first chapter of The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge is a deft inquiry into the structure sides and aspects of the argument from illusion and above all into what conclusion or conclusions can be drawn from it. The role of sense-data is inquired into with an acute persistence that maintains a momentum which itself serves understanding. One conclusion in a bare sentence is that the description of our relation to the world in terms of sense-data is an arguable alternative to the description in terms of material things. There are alternative languages here. The second chapter opens the questions left nearly closed in what you have heard from me so far. These have to do with the exact nature of sense-data, and the exact nature of material things. The third chapter has centrally to do with the seeming privacy or subjectivity of sense-data, so different from the seeming public nature of physical things, and with what can be taken to follow from this.
Ayer's philosophy here is a phenomenalism which is to say a working-out of the ide
อุปกรณ์ เกี่ยวข้องกับคำสั่งแบบมีเงื่อนไข ในความเป็นจริง โดยใช้มรดกที่ หลักสามารถเห็นได้เป็นให้ utterance ใด ๆ เลยจะจริง หรือเท็จ แนะนำ 1946 รายงานการคัดค้าน และ reformulates หลักการตรวจสอบ แต่อย่างไรก็ตาม reformulation นี้เปิดอยู่เพื่อคัดค้านที่เกี่ยวข้อง ถ้าการคัดค้านมากที่ logician ของ และเชิญความคิดว่า จะสามารถหลีกเลี่ยง โดยบางสิ่งประดิษฐ์เพิ่มเติม นี้ถูกไม่ชัดเจนแสดง สนทนาของสูตรแม่นยำหลักของแอร์และอุปสรรคเหล่านั้นมีความสำคัญและสนใจ แต่ไม่สามารถถูกกำหนดที่นี่ หลักสูตรของคุณดีที่สุดการดำเนินการอ่านที่นี่ และที่อื่น ๆ ได้เปิดให้จองดีที่สุดในปรัชญานี้ A. J. Ayer (1985) โดยจอห์นฟอสเตอร์ บทความแรกชุดออกไปกับเปลี่ยนความเข้าใจชัดเจนในหลักการตรวจสอบและรายละเอียดชัดเจน เป็นไปได้คิดว่า ต้องมีความเข้าใจที่ชัดเจน และมีผลถูกต้องหรือไม่ ฉันกำลังอยากดูที่เหตุผลที่คุณสามารถคาดว่าจะมีการ เท่าที่หลักการตรวจสอบเป็น generalization สรุป แทนที่รื่นรมย์สันนิษฐานว่าเป็นการระบุอย่างชัดเจนในลักษณะที่ทำให้ทั้งหมดแตกต่างจากการ generalization ที่ utterances ทั้งหมดเป็นจริง หรือเท็จ คิดว่า ความพยายามใด ๆ ล้มเหลวด้วยวิธีนี้จะโดดเด่น ดูแลจะต้องนำมาในคำอธิบายของอภิปรัชญา ศีลธรรม และศาสนาที่ไปงบหลัก ในการระบุสิ่งที่จะรวมในพวกเขา แต่เป็นการ อาจเป็นไปอย่างมีความสุข utterances บางพูดเกี่ยวกับจิตใจอื่น ๆ หรือความคิด และความรู้สึกของผู้อื่นจิตใจอื่น ๆ หรือเกี่ยวกับอดีตเปิดออกมาไม่ถูกประณาม โดยใช้หลักการ ปรัชญาบางมี objected ว่า พวกเขามีและเป็น มรดกที่ดีหลักการ เราจะกลับในทางภาษา ความจริง และตรรกะ ตอนนี้เปิดสองอื่น ๆ เล่มรากฐานของรวมความรู้และปัญหาความรู้ จะการออกจากอาร์กิวเมนต์ที่ผ่านมากประวัติศาสตร์ปรัชญา มันสามารถพบได้ในแบบฟอร์มในการเก็บฝุ่นของปรัชญากรีกโบราณ อาร์กิวเมนต์ที่มากขึ้นโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งผ่านทางปรัชญาที่มีกับคำถามที่ธรรมชาติของความเป็นจริงซึ่งเรามีประสบการณ์ as distinct from ความเป็นจริงที่เป็นเรื่องของทฤษฎีเท่านั้น ส่วนใหญ่ ได้ หนึ่งในคำถามปรัชญาสามารถเป็นพร้อม และถูกต้องตามประการที่สองว่ามีความรู้ของเราใช้ความรู้สึกสัมผัส ดังนั้นนี้เป็นญาณวิทยาและที่มีการระบุโดยปีเตอร์ Strawson เป็นคู่เดียวกับอภิปรัชญาถือ หรือ revisionary หรืออธิบาย หรือประการ ค่อนข้าง understate อ้างความ pretension นี้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของปรัชญาที่ประกอบด้วยในปัญหาของการรับรู้การวิเคราะห์ของเราเห็นได้ยินและ อาร์กิวเมนต์ในคำถาม คุณอาจพูดว่า จะ มีอะไรเราจริงประสบการณ์เดียวกับสิ่งที่เรานิตย์ถ้า unreflectively ตนเองสัมผัสได้ อะไรคุณจะพบ คุณสามารถพูด เกี่ยวกับเพจนี้มากที่คุณกำลังอ่านได้แตกต่างกันในเวลาต่าง ๆ กัน ขึ้นอยู่ กับสภาพแสง และตำแหน่งของศีรษะสัมพันธ์กับมัน ที่ง่ายที่สุดระดับรูปร่าง หรือประมาณทางภูมิศาสตร์ของสิ่งที่คุณมีไม่แตกต่างกันในโอกาสต่าง ๆ ตามตำแหน่งของคุณ ดูเหมือนธรรมดาที่เหล่านี้ต้องการสิ่งต่าง ๆ ที่มีประสบการณ์เนื่องจากแตกต่างกันอย่างใดไม่ได้สิ่งหนึ่ง ตัวอย่างอื่น ๆ ที่สามารถเพิ่ม มี ตามที่เราบอกว่า ไม้ที่มีลักษณะโค้งน้ำ แต่ตรงออกมาจากมัน เพื่อเปิดการอื่น ๆ วิธีการรับรู้ความรู้สึก มีความอบอุ่นแตกต่างกันของน้ำในอ่างมือเย็น และเสียงหรือรถไฟเพื่อคนฟังที่เป็นผู้ที่มีเสียงแตกต่างกัน แต่ไม่หน้าตัวเองหนึ่งสิ่งคือ สิ่งที่วัสดุไม่หนึ่งสิ่งกับไม้และอื่น ๆ ไม่ได้ตามแล้วว่า เราไม่สังเกต หรือพบสิ่งที่มีอยู่จริง Suppose, with respect to the page, that it is said that our being at one particular angle to it gives us something we can call the page as it is, or the page itself, as distinct from something we can call a look of the page. The trouble is that there seems no difference in kind or type between the fact of experience owed to a particular angle and facts of experience owed to other angles. It is not as if there was a confirming click so to speak a message on the screen, when we see the page as strictly rectangular. Rather there is what seems to be perfect continuity of sort or type between all of our different views or experiences of the page.To the ordinary facts at least tending in the direction of the idea that we do not experience physical objects can be added other reflections. One which has much to do with the argument in question being known as the argument from illusion does not concern ordinary perception but rather complete hallucination. Hallucinations do indeed occur but we can usefully think of your hallucination, while in a completely dark room or away from all pages of seeing before you what you do in fact now see as we say this page of this book. In this case of hallucination it seems your experience would or could be indistinguishable by you from what we call your actually seeing the page now. There could be no difference at all. That is what you experienced in the dark room would have properties qualitatively identical to what you are now actually experinencing. The conclusion of the argument from illusion to come finally to one statement of it is that what we ordinarily experience, what we get by way of sense perception is not reality. What we get is not what we call physical things material objects for the several reasons. There is but one of those that we both are said to perceive when, as we say, we see this page from different angles. The page itself surely does not change its shape under different conditions of perception. The reality itself of the temperature of the water does not depend on and vary with temperatures of my hand. And to come round to the complete hallucination or possible hallucination, where there is no page at all something is experienced. It is not that there is no experience, that there is an experience of nothing. As remarked what is experienced is in no way different from ordinarily seeing a page. What was experienced in the hallucination was not a page and it follows that what you are now experiencing is not a page either. What you are now experiencing to give it a name is a sense-datum.The argument from illusion can be taken to issue in a bundle of questions. They can be arranged in a kind of ascending order. What is it really to do what we call see or otherwise perceive something What do we actually experience and how is this sense datum related to what we call reality, or at any rate ordinary reality? Are the things we experience, including the look of the page or the page as it looks to me now the foundations of our knowledge of other things, the physical or material things that make up the external world? Are they necessary foundations? Are our beliefs in our sense-data certain indubitable or incorrigible, unlike our beliefs in physical objects? Is there a closer relation than that of premise and conclusion between the things we experience and the other things? A different relation than premise and conclusion? That bundle of questions can only be answered after others, prior questions often slid by as they were above are considered first. What you heard before the bundle of questions was posed, the account of the argument from illusion, is itself thick with prior questions. To go back to the beginning of the account what is it to actually experience something and what is it just to experience something? And what we experience exactly to what do those words refer? A little further on in the account, what is the page as it is? What is the fact of experience? How are we to understand these things? There are also other questions left open. In the two books, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge and The Problem of Knowledge, Ayer carries forward what is surely the finest inquiry of his century into these matters. They are matters that are not at all simple. Certainly he makes advances on the clarity of Hume and of John Stuart Mill and on the Vienna Circle of Logical Positivists. He also brings into better and quicker focus certain lines of thought in the work of his contemporary H. H. Price. If I may revert in passing to the subject of the man rather than his work the credit he gives to Price is the action of a honest man. Authors have managed to conceal debts to one another before now. The first chapter of The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge is a deft inquiry into the structure sides and aspects of the argument from illusion and above all into what conclusion or conclusions can be drawn from it. The role of sense-data is inquired into with an acute persistence that maintains a momentum which itself serves understanding. One conclusion in a bare sentence is that the description of our relation to the world in terms of sense-data is an arguable alternative to the description in terms of material things. There are alternative languages here. The second chapter opens the questions left nearly closed in what you have heard from me so far. These have to do with the exact nature of sense-data, and the exact nature of material things. The third chapter has centrally to do with the seeming privacy or subjectivity of sense-data, so different from the seeming public nature of physical things, and with what can be taken to follow from this. ปรัชญาของแอร์นี่คือ phenomenalism ซึ่ง working-out ของ ide
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
