4. Discussion
The predicted signaling pathways of LAR and SAR triggered by
iturin A are shown in Fig. 4. Plant cells recognize iturin A through an
unknown mechanism, probably through receptor recognition and/
or bilayer perturbation of plasma membranes. The recognition
guides the cells to early events triggering plant defense response.
When the SA signaling pathway is activated, NPR1 is transported to
the nucleus in response to SA [8], where it upregulates defense
gene expression, such as PR1. The JA signaling pathway is positively
regulated by the recognition, and MYC2 induces defense gene
expression, such as PDF1.2 [10]. Consequently, LAR is induced in
local tissues exposed to iturin A. SA and JA signals are transported
in the phloem and then to systemic tissues from the phloem.
Similar to local tissues, in iturin A untreated cells, SA and JA induce
defense gene expression through NPR1-and MYC2-related signal
transduction, respectively. Finally, SAR is systemically expressed in
distant tissues.
The perception that iturin A acts as an elicitor of plant defense
response has yielded contradictory results. Some reports demonstrated
that iturin is not the major determinant of induced defense
response in tobacco [13] and melon [14]. On the other hand, some
studies showed that iturin A activated plant defense response in
pepper [15] and strawberry [4]. This contradiction might be due to
the perception that iturin A acts as an elicitor only in specific plant
species. In the present study, we observed the elicitor activity of
iturin A in Arabidopsis plants. Therefore, we concluded that iturin A,
at least in part, can systemically induce plant defense response by
activating both SA and JA signaling pathways in Arabidopsis plants.
Why does iturin A act as an elicitor in specific plant species? To
date, it is not clear whether specific receptor proteins binding lipopeptide
antibiotics exist in plant cells. It is perceived that surfactin
disturbs lipid compartmentalization through surfactin-lipid bilayer
binding [16], although the existence of low-affinity receptors
cannot be completely ruled out. Surfactin does not have specific
affinity to plant sterols, whereas iturins strongly bind to plant
sterols [1]. The permeability of ions, such as Kþ, is greatly increased
in target cells exposed to iturins through the formation of ionconducting
pores using the b-hydroxy fatty acid chain of iturins
[1]. Therefore, the ability of iturin A to act as an elicitor in specific
plant species may depend on the lipid composition of plant
membrane that binds the b-hydroxy fatty acid chain of iturins. In
fact, iturin A was inactivated when it was transformed into a linear
structure without the b-hydroxy fatty acid chain, as shown in the
iturin A derivative peptide ATAGPA (Fig. 3).
On the other hand, it is plausible that the seven amino acids
composing the iturin A structure do not function as elicitors
themselves. Plant cells possess receptors that recognize pathogenassociated
molecular patterns (PAMPs) [17]. Peptides flg22 and
elf18 are well-studied PAMPs from phytopathogenic bacteria; they
bind to the leucine-rich repeat receptor kinase flagellin-sensitive 2
[18] and elongation factor Tu receptor [19], respectively. The biological
activity of iturin A is modulated by the primary structure of
the cyclic peptide. For example, the inversion between the adjacent
L-Ser and D-Asn in the cyclic peptide enhanced the antifungal activity
of iturin A [1]. Fig. 3 demonstrated that the cyclization of the
seven amino acids and/or the b-hydroxy fatty acid chain might be
required for the induction of defense response. Accordingly, we
speculated that (1) the peptides of iturin A are not molecular
components categorized in PAMPs, (2) iturin A specific receptor
(protein) does not exist in plant cells, and (3) bilayer perturbation in
plant cells exposed to iturin A is essential for the induction of plant
defense response.
Surprisingly, the three iturin A derivative peptides suppressed
PR1 and PDF1.2 gene expression (Fig. 3). Phytopathogenic bacteria
infecting plants deliver ‘effector’ proteins into plant cells.
The effectors block PAMP-triggered plant immunity, resulting in
compatibility between the bacteria and the plants. The effectors
directly target PAMP-recognition receptors and their associated
accessory proteins [20]. As both SA and JA signaling pathways
were inactivated by iturin A derivative peptides, those peptides
might inhibit the upstream signaling pathways probably common
to the SA and JA signaling pathways. Although further
studies of the function of iturin A derivative peptides as effector
peptides that suppress plant defense response are required,
exploration of target molecules binding to the peptides would
shed new light on plant defense response through the SA and JA
signaling pathways.