This development model was applied to some Latin American countries during the early 1970s, from which it spread to Africa, Asia, and virtually all countries, even a newly liberated South Africa, by the mid1990s. Likewise, neoliberalism became the West’s model for reshaping the eastern European region in the postcommunist 1990s. A good example was Poland’s “return to Europe.” Jeffrey Sachs (1991), a Harvard University economist and adviser to Solidarity, the Polish workers’ movement, and subsequently to the postcommunist Polish government, saw structural change in the former communist countries occurring through the generalized reintroduction of market forces. Three types of policies were involved in the economic reform program: economic liberalization, the broad rubric for legal and administrative changes needed to create institutions of private property and market competition; macroeconomic stabilization, including measures to limit budgetary deficits, reduce growth of the money supply, and create a convertible currency with stable prices; and privatization, meaning the transfer of ownership of state property to the private sector. However, Sachs also advocated a social safety net, to prevent reforms from injuring the most vulnerable sectors of society, and a public investment program, mainly for infrastructure as a complement to economic restructuring. He thought that measures like these could be introduced virtually overnight (like switching driving practices in Britain from the left side to the right side of the road) in a process that became known as “shock therapy” (Klein 2007; Gowan 1995). The key to economic reform, Sachs said, was that several years had to pass amidst a vale of tears before the fruits of change were fully evident, the amount of time depending on the boldness and consistency of the reforms—if there was wavering, it was easy to get lost in the valley. In one simple statement Sachs summarized the neoliberal approach to development—liberal in the classical (19th-century) sense of lack of state control and reliance on markets and the price mechanism, liberal in the 20th-century sense of concern for victims, but neo in the sense that suffering was accepted as an inevitable consequence of “reform and efficiency.”