Deterrence theory reflects the assumptions of rational choice theory, which assumes that people's behavior is shaped by practical calculations: People break the law if the benefits of doing so exceed the costs. If crime is a "rational choice" for some people, then increasing the certainty or severity of punishment for crime should shift the cost-benefit balance away from criminal behavior. Labeling theory is rooted in symbolic interactionism, which focuses on the symbolic meanings that people give to behavior (Hagan, 1994:40). Instead of assuming that some forms of behavior are deviant in and of themselves (Scull, 1988:678), symbolic interactionists would view deviance as a consequence of the application of rules.and sanctions to an "offender" (Becker, 1963:9).