Transition assessments contribute significantly to the development of measurable postsecondary goals, identification of necessary transition services, and evaluation of the outcomes of such services (Morningstar & Liss, 2008) for students with disabilities as they transition into adult life. The data from such assessments provide the common thread in the transition process and form the basis for defining goals and services to be included in the individualized education plan (IEP; Sitlington, Neubert, & Laconte, 1997).
There is no regulatory language that explicitly defines transition assessment (Morningstar & Liss, 2008), but in general, such assessments can be either formal or informal, depending on the capabilities of the student and the information needed for decision making (Miller, Lombard, & Corbey, 2007). Formal assessments, the more conventional method of testing, usually involve the use of standardized procedures (Weaver, 2007) versus informal assessments, which typically involve the use of nonstandardized procedures that may include conducting interviews and observations in various settings.
Individuals with severe and/or multiple disabilities typically experience the most challenges in accessing employment and independent living when they exit high school (Turnbull, Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2007). For these individuals, formal assessment practices are often impractical for specific program-planning purposes and of dubious validity (Cates, 1999; Kamphaus et al., 1999; LaSasso, 1999; Lennox & Hiltenberger, 1989; Voelker, Shore, Hakim-Larson, & Bruner, 1997; Zanetti, Geroldi, Frisoni, Bianchetti, & Trabucchi, 1999). For this reason, reliance on third-party informants (Enderle & Severson, 2003) is often considered a valuable and necessary supplement for gathering relevant data about a particular individual (Voelker et al., 1997). In some cases, third-party informants serve as the primary informational sources for individuals with limited capacities to communicate, providing the basis for developing educational and/or rehabilitation programs (Klein, Clermont, & O'Neill, 1986; Sparrow & Cicchetti, 1985). Although data gathered by third-party informants is somewhat useful, too much reliance on such sources may be risky in that the information they provide may not necessarily yield valid and reliable results (Lohrmann-O'Rourke & Browder, 1998). For example, third-party respondents may base their opinions about the student's capabilities within various situations on their experiences with the student in contexts in which their presence actually influences the student's behavior. The ways in which the student behaves in such situations may actually be considerably more or less favorable than the ways the same student behaves in similar situations with other individuals who are familiar with the student.
For such students, Rojewski (2002) recommended what has been referred to as a Level III assessment, which generally takes several days to complete and typically uses informal transitional assessment procedures, including direct observations of the individuals in a variety of real-world situations and environmental analyses. Systematic informal assessments in the community contexts where daily choices are made for individuals with severe and multiple disabilities have considerable merit because they may not only yield more reliable information than formal transition assessment practices or third-party informants but may provide the most useful information for program planning purposes (Lohrmann-O'Rourke & Browder, 1998) for such individuals.
Many individuals with severe and/or multiple disabilities have difficulty generalizing skills from one environment to another (Anthony, Cohen, & Farcas, 1990; Lohrmann-O'Rourke & Browder, 1998; Neef, Lensbower, Hockersmith, DePalma, & Gary, 1990; Newbigging & Laskey, 1996). Research has demonstrated that the closer one's training is to the real situations in which they are likely to live, work, and play, the greater the likelihood is that the person will retain and generalize their skills (Berg et al., 1995). The same holds true for assessment (C. Murray, 1990), in that the closer the assessment is to the actual real-world situations in which the person is likely to live, work, and play, the greater the likelihood is that it will present an accurate picture of the person's capabilities as well as his/her training and support needs for succeeding in those situations (Desrochers, Nile, & Williams-Moseley, 1997).
One popular form of informal assessment, particularly for students with severe and/or multiple disabilities, which is often used for ascertaining one's employment interests and/or potential in various employments settings, is known as situational assessment (Anthony, 1994; Peters, Koller, & Holliday, 1995). As the term implies, an individual is observed within a particular employment setting to determine the match, or “goodness of fit,” between the person and the setting. The focus of the situational assessment is fourfold: (a) to determine whether the person seems to like being in the setting by communicating his/her preferences either verbally or behaviorally; (b) to determine whether the person has the requisite cognitive, behavioral, physical, sensory, and/or social capacities–skills to meet the demands inherent in that setting; (c) to determine the levels and types of support that may be needed to assist the individual in acquiring, maintaining, and generalizing needed skills; and (d) to determine what accommodations, if any, must be made in the setting on behalf of the person. If the person seems resistant or opposed to being in any particular location, other settings are explored in which the person seems more content. Conducting the situational assessment in the appropriate setting serves as a means of identifying the training, support, and/or environmental accommodations that are necessary so that the person can function competently in this type of setting. Although the information that is obtained in situational assessments is useful in determining necessary supports, the findings are somewhat limited in that they primarily focus on more universal work behaviors that are useful in a wide range of jobs, including initiative, dependability, punctuality, productivity, ability to get along with coworkers, and willingness to perform tasks that have been deemed as undesirable to other workers (Bond & Friedmeyer, 1987).
Competency-Based Community Assessment
An expansion of the situational assessment is a more comprehensive, transitional assessment model that we refer to as the competency based community assessment (CBCA). CBCA, which we have used over the last 10 years with dozens of individuals, has served as a particularly useful evaluation tool for conducting transitional assessments for the purposes of ascertaining one's independent living and community integration training needs as well as a person's capacities. Whereas many assessment procedures emphasize an individual's disability, this approach begins with the individual's abilities and competencies. It is both strength based and person centered (Morningstar & Liss, 2008). CBCA examines the personal, local, and cultural forces in a particular community situation, allowing for clearer understanding of what a student is likely to do and how she/he is likely to perform under a variety of similar conditions.
Step 1: Creating a Vision
The first step is one of creating a vision of the student's future. For this step, any of the currently popular vision planning methods can be used, including, Personal Futures Planning (Moss & Wiley, 1985; Mount & Zwernik, 1988), the McGill Action Planning System (MAPS; Vandercook, York, & Forest, 1989), and Dare to Dream: A Guide to Planning Your Future (Webb et al., 1999). The purpose of this step is to create a long-term plan that incorporates all of the hopes and dreams shared by the student and those close to the student. The vision includes but is not limited to the following: where the student will live, what level of support will be needed to enable him/her to live as independently as possible, what she/he will be doing for recreation–leisure, and whether she/he will be working full time or part time and in what type of job.
The most obvious participants in this step are the student and close family members. However, it is important to carefully consider any other individuals who know the student in a variety of contexts, as they may be able to shed light on additional positive qualities that the student possesses, particularly under specific conditions. For example, family members might view the student as self-centered or withdrawn. However, the school nurse may view the student as caring and outgoing because he/she has noticed that the student often shows great concern for his/her classmates who are feeling ill and often comes to the office with get-well cards and candy. In this particular case, it would be valuable for those involved in this step to have a clear understanding of the conditions and dynamics that cultivate positive experiences for the student and consider ways in which those conditions can be replicated and entwined into the vision plan. It might be that the student thrives in situations where he/she has the opportunity to offer kind gestures to others.
The hopes and dreams that go into the process of creating the vision should be centered on what the student would want. The vision should be geared toward helping the student reach his/her fullest capacity and maintain active citizenship in mainstream society. We have found, given that the overwhelming majority of the students for whom we have used the CBCA are within the 16–21-year-old age range, that looking ahead between 3 and 5 years in creating the vision has been the most useful timeframe.
Step 2: Determining and Prioritizing the Skills to Be Assessed in a Variety of Settings
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ประเมินการเปลี่ยนแปลงร่วมมากพัฒนาเป้าหมายวัด postsecondary รหัสบริการเปลี่ยนแปลงที่จำเป็น และการประเมินผลลัพธ์ของบริการดังกล่าว (มอร์นิงสตาร์เกสต์และ Liss, 2008) สำหรับนักเรียนพิการเขาเปลี่ยนเป็นผู้ใหญ่ ข้อมูลจากการประเมินดังกล่าวมีหัวข้อทั่วไปในกระบวนการเปลี่ยนแปลง และเป็นพื้นฐานสำหรับการกำหนดเป้าหมายและบริการที่จะรวมไว้ในแผนการศึกษาเป็นรายบุคคล (IEP Sitlington, Neubert, & Laconte, 1997)มีภาษาไม่มีกฎระเบียบที่ชัดเจนกำหนดประเมินการเปลี่ยนแปลง (มอร์นิงสตาร์เกสต์และ Liss, 2008), แต่โดยทั่วไป ประเมินดังกล่าวได้อย่างเป็นทางการ หรือไม่เป็น ทางการ ขึ้นอยู่กับความสามารถของนักเรียนและข้อมูลที่จำเป็นสำหรับการตัดสิน (มิลเลอร์ ลอมบาร์ด & Corbey, 2007) ประเมินผลอย่างเป็นทางการ ทดสอบ วิธีทั่วไปมากขึ้นเกี่ยวข้องกับการใช้กระบวนการมาตรฐาน (ช่างทอผ้า 2007) และประเมินเป็น ซึ่งโดยทั่วไปจะเกี่ยวข้องกับการใช้กระบวนการ nonstandardized ที่อาจมีการดำเนินการสัมภาษณ์และการสังเกตการณ์ในการตั้งค่าต่างๆ มักจะบุคคลที่ มีความรุนแรงหรือความพิการหลายโดยทั่วไปพบกับความท้าทายมากที่สุดในการเข้าถึงการจ้างงานและการใช้ชีวิตอิสระเมื่อพวกเขาออกจากโรงเรียนมัธยม (Turnbull, Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2007) สำหรับบุคคลเหล่านี้ วิธีการประเมินอย่างเป็นทางมักมากประสงค์เฉพาะโปรแกรมวางแผน และความไม่แน่นอน (Cates, 1999 Kamphaus et al., 1999 LaSasso, 1999 เลนและ Hiltenberger, 1989 Voelker ฝั่ง Hakim Larson และ Bruner, 1997 Zanetti, Geroldi, Frisoni, Bianchetti, & Trabucchi, 1999) ด้วยเหตุนี้ ความเชื่อมั่นในคุณค่าของบุคคลที่สาม (Enderle & Severson, 2003) มักจะถือว่าเป็นอาหารเสริมที่มีคุณค่า และจำเป็นสำหรับการรวบรวมข้อมูลที่เกี่ยวข้องเกี่ยวกับบุคคลเฉพาะ (Voelker และ al., 1997) ในบางกรณี คุณค่าของบุคคลที่สามทำหน้าที่เป็นแหล่งข้อมูลหลักสำหรับบุคคลที่มีความจุที่จำกัดในการสื่อสาร การให้ข้อมูลพื้นฐานสำหรับการพัฒนาทางการศึกษาและ/หรือโปรแกรมการฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพ (Klein, Clermont และโอ นีล 1986 สแปร์โรว์ & Cicchetti, 1985) แม้ว่าข้อมูลที่รวบรวม โดยคุณค่าของบุคคลที่สามจะเป็นประโยชน์บ้าง ความเชื่อมั่นมากเกินไปในแหล่งดังกล่าวอาจจะมีความเสี่ยงที่มีแหล่งข้อมูลอาจไม่จำเป็นต้องเป็นผลลัพธ์ถูกต้อง และเชื่อถือได้ (Lohrmann O'Rourke & Browder, 1998) ตัวอย่าง บุคคลที่สามผู้ตอบอาจยึดความคิดเห็นเกี่ยวกับความสามารถของนักเรียนในสถานการณ์ต่าง ๆ เกี่ยวกับประสบการณ์ของตนกับนักเรียนในบริบทซึ่งพวกจริงมีผลต่อพฤติกรรมของนักเรียน วิธีการที่นักเรียนปฏิบัติในสถานการณ์เช่นนี้จริงอาจจะมากน้อยดีกว่าวิธีการทำงานของนักเรียนเดียวกันในสถานการณ์ที่คล้ายคลึงกับบุคคลอื่นที่คุ้นเคยกับนักเรียนสำหรับนักเรียนดังกล่าว Rojewski (2002) แนะนำที่ได้รับการเรียกว่าประเมินระดับ III ซึ่งโดยทั่วไปใช้เวลาหลายวันให้เสร็จสมบูรณ์ และโดยทั่วไปใช้วิธีประเมินเป็นอีกรายการ รวมทั้งสังเกตการณ์โดยตรงของบุคคลในสถานการณ์จริงและวิเคราะห์สิ่งแวดล้อม ประเมินที่เป็นระบบในบริบทชุมชนที่เลือกประจำวันจะหาบุคคลที่มีอย่างรุนแรงและความพิการหลายมีบุญมาก เพราะพวกเขาอาจไม่เท่าผลผลิตข้อมูลเชื่อถือได้มากขึ้นกว่าเปลี่ยนทางปฏิบัติการประเมินคุณค่าของบุคคลที่สาม แต่อาจให้ข้อมูลที่เป็นประโยชน์มากที่สุดสำหรับการวางแผน (Lohrmann O'Rourke & Browder, 1998) สำหรับแต่ละบุคคลเช่นโปรแกรมMany individuals with severe and/or multiple disabilities have difficulty generalizing skills from one environment to another (Anthony, Cohen, & Farcas, 1990; Lohrmann-O'Rourke & Browder, 1998; Neef, Lensbower, Hockersmith, DePalma, & Gary, 1990; Newbigging & Laskey, 1996). Research has demonstrated that the closer one's training is to the real situations in which they are likely to live, work, and play, the greater the likelihood is that the person will retain and generalize their skills (Berg et al., 1995). The same holds true for assessment (C. Murray, 1990), in that the closer the assessment is to the actual real-world situations in which the person is likely to live, work, and play, the greater the likelihood is that it will present an accurate picture of the person's capabilities as well as his/her training and support needs for succeeding in those situations (Desrochers, Nile, & Williams-Moseley, 1997).One popular form of informal assessment, particularly for students with severe and/or multiple disabilities, which is often used for ascertaining one's employment interests and/or potential in various employments settings, is known as situational assessment (Anthony, 1994; Peters, Koller, & Holliday, 1995). As the term implies, an individual is observed within a particular employment setting to determine the match, or “goodness of fit,” between the person and the setting. The focus of the situational assessment is fourfold: (a) to determine whether the person seems to like being in the setting by communicating his/her preferences either verbally or behaviorally; (b) to determine whether the person has the requisite cognitive, behavioral, physical, sensory, and/or social capacities–skills to meet the demands inherent in that setting; (c) to determine the levels and types of support that may be needed to assist the individual in acquiring, maintaining, and generalizing needed skills; and (d) to determine what accommodations, if any, must be made in the setting on behalf of the person. If the person seems resistant or opposed to being in any particular location, other settings are explored in which the person seems more content. Conducting the situational assessment in the appropriate setting serves as a means of identifying the training, support, and/or environmental accommodations that are necessary so that the person can function competently in this type of setting. Although the information that is obtained in situational assessments is useful in determining necessary supports, the findings are somewhat limited in that they primarily focus on more universal work behaviors that are useful in a wide range of jobs, including initiative, dependability, punctuality, productivity, ability to get along with coworkers, and willingness to perform tasks that have been deemed as undesirable to other workers (Bond & Friedmeyer, 1987).Competency-Based Community AssessmentAn expansion of the situational assessment is a more comprehensive, transitional assessment model that we refer to as the competency based community assessment (CBCA). CBCA, which we have used over the last 10 years with dozens of individuals, has served as a particularly useful evaluation tool for conducting transitional assessments for the purposes of ascertaining one's independent living and community integration training needs as well as a person's capacities. Whereas many assessment procedures emphasize an individual's disability, this approach begins with the individual's abilities and competencies. It is both strength based and person centered (Morningstar & Liss, 2008). CBCA examines the personal, local, and cultural forces in a particular community situation, allowing for clearer understanding of what a student is likely to do and how she/he is likely to perform under a variety of similar conditions.Step 1: Creating a VisionThe first step is one of creating a vision of the student's future. For this step, any of the currently popular vision planning methods can be used, including, Personal Futures Planning (Moss & Wiley, 1985; Mount & Zwernik, 1988), the McGill Action Planning System (MAPS; Vandercook, York, & Forest, 1989), and Dare to Dream: A Guide to Planning Your Future (Webb et al., 1999). The purpose of this step is to create a long-term plan that incorporates all of the hopes and dreams shared by the student and those close to the student. The vision includes but is not limited to the following: where the student will live, what level of support will be needed to enable him/her to live as independently as possible, what she/he will be doing for recreation–leisure, and whether she/he will be working full time or part time and in what type of job.
The most obvious participants in this step are the student and close family members. However, it is important to carefully consider any other individuals who know the student in a variety of contexts, as they may be able to shed light on additional positive qualities that the student possesses, particularly under specific conditions. For example, family members might view the student as self-centered or withdrawn. However, the school nurse may view the student as caring and outgoing because he/she has noticed that the student often shows great concern for his/her classmates who are feeling ill and often comes to the office with get-well cards and candy. In this particular case, it would be valuable for those involved in this step to have a clear understanding of the conditions and dynamics that cultivate positive experiences for the student and consider ways in which those conditions can be replicated and entwined into the vision plan. It might be that the student thrives in situations where he/she has the opportunity to offer kind gestures to others.
The hopes and dreams that go into the process of creating the vision should be centered on what the student would want. The vision should be geared toward helping the student reach his/her fullest capacity and maintain active citizenship in mainstream society. We have found, given that the overwhelming majority of the students for whom we have used the CBCA are within the 16–21-year-old age range, that looking ahead between 3 and 5 years in creating the vision has been the most useful timeframe.
Step 2: Determining and Prioritizing the Skills to Be Assessed in a Variety of Settings
The seco
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