Communications consultant Richard Lewis has suggested, only partly in jest, “For a
German and a Finn, the truth is the truth. In Japan and Britain, it is all right to tell the
truth if it doesn’t rock the boat. In China, there is no absolute truth. And in Italy, the
truth is negotiable.”20 And British actor Peter Ustinov has observed, again only partly in
jest, “In order to reach the truth the Germans add, the French subtract, and the British
378 MANAGEMENT ACROSS CULTURE S
change the subject. I did not include the Americans, since they often give the impression
that they already have the truth.”21 To the extent that these observations have merit, it
would appear that truth is clearly in the eye of the beholder. That is, the “truth” is not
always the “truth.” At the very least, we have to conclude that, at times, there are no
universals when it comes to being truthful.
To understand the impact of culture on how people see right and wrong and try and
make sense of their responsibilities both to themselves and others, we need to work on
two different levels (see Exhibit 11.4). First, culture has an effect on whether groups of
people might be treated differently based upon their cultural backgrounds – what might
be called the “who” question and which relates to the parties to an exchange over ethics
and the role that cultural memberships may play in that exchange. Second, culture can
also affect the content of what one considers proper behavior towards oneself and
others – the “what” question. This is an important distinction, and global managers who
fail to understand this often end up characterizing acceptable behaviors as unethical,
thus escalating tensions and conflicts in their relations with others.
Level 1: Should we hold everyone to the same or to different standards?
The answer to the “who” question is directly linked to where cultures stand in terms of
universalism and particularism. This conflict can be illustrated in a classic confrontation
between a driver and a pedestrian.22 Imagine that you are riding in a car driven by
a close friend and he hits a pedestrian. You know he was driving too fast in a limited
speed zone. You know further that there are no other witnesses, and your friend’s
lawyer asks you to testify that he was actually driving more slowly. Indeed, if you testify
honestly to his actual speed at the time of the accident, your friend will face serious legal
consequences. What would you do?
When presented with this dilemma, people from “universalistic” and “particularistic”
cultures tend to behave in different ways. (Remember from Chapter 3 that
Exhibit 11.4 Universalism, particularism, and truthfulness
Level 2: Appropriate ethical behavior towards others
Level 1: Universal or flexible application of rules