Elias Alsabti was a meticulous plagiarizer. This physician-researcher fabricated his
curriculum vitae, copied a colleague’s grant for his own use, published other people’s data under his own
name, and co-authored his pilfered data with fictitious collaborators. Individuals such as these are
unlikely to learn research ethics through instruction because they are not interested in becoming ethical
practitioners.
The ethics of scientific research is somewhat unique within professional ethics in the sense that good
science requires the ethical practice of science (this is discussed in more detail in Section 4).
Nevertheless, a course in research ethics cannot and should not have as its central focus the question,
“Why should I be moral?” This question, while important, is not specific to the field of scientific
research. A course in research ethics, as envisioned by the Dartmouth team, must be a course that
teaches the tools for making ethical decisions relative to matters of research. It will be designed for those
scientists who are already committed to being ethical researchers. Such a course should provide students
the answers to the question, “How can I make moral decisions?”
Although it is the fabricators and the plagiarizers whom we most often think of when we think of
research misconduct, these are not the only people accused of misconduct. They are also not the only
people who are guilty of misconduct. Many other scientists have had lives and careers affected by
misconduct cases.
It is undoubtedly unfair to generalize from a few cases of misconduct to an entire profession.
Nevertheless, reported cases of misconduct are not uncommon, and this could reflect a failure to train
students to the highest ethical standards. The 1993 Office of Research Integrity (ORI) publication
reported the 1991–1992 caseload to include 29 institutional inquiries, 21 institutional investigations, and
7 ORI inquiries or investigations.3 The 1995 ORI publication reported the 1994 caseload as 13
institutional inquiries, 17 institutional investigations, and 8 ORI inquiries or investigations.4 Of actions
closed in these years (55 in 1991–1992; 44 in 1994), some involved fabrication, some falsification, some
plagiarism, and others some combination of fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and “other misconduct.”
Slightly fewer than half of the investigated cases closed as of these reports were found to involve
misconduct and resulted in sanction against the accused party. The academic rank of the accused ranged
from technician to full professor. Cases were reported from a number of institutions, and the accused
parties were funded by a variety of funding sources.
Cases of misconduct are not simple matters to evaluate. One source of concern is confusion within the
field of science about just what constitutes a punishable infringement of ethical standards. In the fields of
engineering, law, and medicine, clear written guidelines exist for defining ethical conduct. Although some
particularly difficult cases may test the limits of these guidelines, most do not. In scientific research, a
written code of conduct is not available.5 The federal government6 and individual institutions7 have been
struggling to clarify the standards under which misconduct can be adjudicated. The central definitions
that delineate misconduct in science include fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. However, these are
confused by other less clear categories of misconduct, which include “other questionable behavior” or
“other misconduct.” Within this confusion of definitions it is not always obvious to students or faculty
where and toward whom their obligations lie.