The initial research of Manz and Sims (1980) focused on the concept of selfmanagement
as a substitute for leadership (p. 361). Manz and Sims proposed selfmanagement
as an essential element of Bandura's (1977) social learning theory and
prescribed specific techniques. Houghton and Neck (2006) declared that the origins of
self-management are derived from research on self-control originating from research in
clinical psychology (p. 280). Mans and Sims (1980) described self-management thus: