In the beginning stages of reading, rapid and automatic word analysis is essential for developing decoding and fluency skills; at this level, the purpose of word analysis is to identify (sound out) the word. The focus of word analysis for vocabulary is on the meaningful parts of a word to help determine its overall meaning. Some students may not realize that they can use their knowledge about how to divide words into parts to figure out word meanings. There are numerous sources for lists of common root words and affixes (suffixes and prefixes); an internet search can produce useful examples. Two publications to consult for how to teach word parts are “Morphemes for Meaning” by Jane Greene, and “Vocabulary Through Morphemes” by Susan Ebbers (both are published by Sopris West, www.sopriswest.com). It is important to note that struggling readers and students with learning disabilities in particular may be lacking in word analysis skills or the ability to readily learn and apply these skills. This often is part of the reason why they have difficulty reading. Use of context to determine word meaning Good readers often use context clues to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words, if they are available in the text. They can locate other words and phrases in a passage that give clues about what an unknown word means. Struggling readers who do not do this should be given direct instruction in how to effectively look for clues or definitions. For example, part of the “Click and Clunk” strategy (Vaughn et al, 2001) teaches students to follow these steps when they come across a word they do not know (described as a “clunk”):
1. Reread the sentence with the clunk. Look for key words.
2. Reread the sentence without the clunk. What word makes sense?
3. Reread the sentence before and after the clunk. Look for clues.
The clues may be any of the following types of information embedded in the text: definition, restatement, example, comparison or contrast, description, synonym or antonym. Expository, non-fiction text (e.g., school textbooks) tends to offer more context clues than narrative story text. One suggestion to help students become more aware of using context is to provide them with the terms “rich context” (has a lot of clues to figure out a word) and “lean context” (not much there to help figure out a word). It is important to point out that not all contexts are helpful. Contexts vary in their helpfulness of how much information they provide a reader. Sometimes the context provides a direct explanation of the meaning of a new word: Example: Up to this point we have been referring to the process in which light energy is used to make food simply as the food-making process. But this important process has its own special name: photosynthesis. (In this examaple, the meaning of photosynthesis is stated directly in the previous sentence.) Example: Prince Henry started a school for sea captains. These captains were taught the science of navigation. That is, they were taught how to figure out a ship’s location and the direction and distance that it travels. (In this example, the meaning of navigation is stated directly in the next sentence.) Sometimes the context provides some information about a new word, but not enough for the student to be certain of its meaning: Example: In order to gain active immunity to a disease, one of two things must occur – either you come down with the disease, or you receive a vaccination. (In this example, the student may guess that a vaccination has something to do with preventing disease, but not enough information if provided to discern the full meaning of the word.) Example: Cartier found the mouth of a large river, which he named the St. Lawrence River. He sailed up this river until he came to a rapid. Ships cannot pass across a rapid. Disappointed, Cartier had to turn back. (In this example, the student may guess that a rapid is something in a river that prohibits a ship from passing, but not enough information is provided to identify specifically what is impeding the ship’s progress.) Finally, sometimes the context can actually lead to a misunderstanding, referred to as a “misdirective” (Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002): Example: Sandra had won the dance contest, and the audience’s cheers brought her to the stage for an encore. “Every step she takes is so perfect and graceful,” Ginny said grudgingly as she watched Sandra dance. (Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002, p.4). (In this example, the context might lead the reader to believe that Ginny liked or admired Sandra’s dancing, when in fact grudge means “a feeling of resentment or ill will”.) Students need to learn an alternative strategy if the context is nondirective or misdirective, most likely going to a source that provides information about words, such as a dictionary. Teach how to effectively use a dictionary For many years, the practice of having students look up words, write down definitions, and memorize those definitions was the main strategy teachers used to teach vocabulary. We now know that having students follow this practice is one of the least effective strategies. In fact, there is a great deal of research showing that children cannot use conventional definitions to learn words (Scott & Nagy, 1997).
That does not mean that students should not use dictionaries; however, their use should be limited and students must be taught how to use a dictionary and choose the right definition. Students need explicit instruction in how to use what they find in a dictionary entry so they are able to transfer that information into something useful. Students may be confused by different meanings for the same word, or the wording in a dictionary entry may be too difficult to read or understand. The following suggestions were adapted from the Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts (2002): To choose the right definition, the student must:
• Use background knowledge about the content in the text
• Have a sense of the grammatical use in the text
• Read and understand each definition As noted earlier, to remember the meaning of a new word, it is better for students to reword the definition in their own words, to identify synonyms and antonyms for the word, to use the word in their own meaningful sentence, and to recognize that the word may be used differently in other contexts. Struggling readers and students with learning disabilities in particular have difficulty using a dictionary. The process is slow and labored, often making the time it takes to look up a word frustrating and not worth the effort. These students tend to have a poor sense of the order of the letters in the alphabet, and they have significant difficulty “skimming” down a list of words that are visually similar. Once they locate the word, they tend to be overloaded with the amount of information and reading level of the words in the entry. For non-readers, the task is impossible. The key thing to remember about using a dictionary is that research supports combining both the definitions of new words with the context in which the words are used (Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 2002).