ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes the explanatory power of some of the recent theories of optimal
capital structure. The study extends empirical work on capital structure theory in three
ways. First, it examines a much broader set of capital structure theories, many of which
have not previously been analyzed empirically. Second, since the theories have different
empirical implications in regard to different types of debt instruments, the authors
analyze measures of short-term, long-term, and convertible debt rather than an aggregate
measure of total debt. Third, the study uses a factor-analytic technique that
mitigates the measurement problems encountered when working with proxy variables.
IN RECENT YEARS,A number of theories have been proposed to explain the
variation in debt ratios across firms. The theories suggest that firms select capital
structures depending on attributes that determine the various costs and benefits
associated with debt and equity financing. Empirical work in this area has lagged
behind the theoretical research, perhaps because the relevant firm attributes are
expressed in terms of fairly abstract concepts that are not directly observable.
The basic approach taken in previous empirical work has been to estimate
regression equations with proxies for the unobservable theoretical attributes.
This approach has a number of problems. First, there may be no unique representation
of the attributes we wish to measure. There are often many possible
proxies for a particular attribute, and researchers, lacking theoretical guidelines,
may be tempted to select those variables that work best in terms of statistical
goodness-of-fit criteria, thereby biasing their interpretation of the significance
levels of their tests. Second, it is often difficult to find measures of particular
attributes that are unrelated to other attributes that are of interest. Thus, selected
proxy variables may be measuring the effects of several different attributes.
Third, since the observed variables are imperfect representations of the attributes
they are supposed to measure, their use in regression analysis introduces an
errors-in-variable problem. Finally, measurement errors in the proxy variables
may be correlated with measurement errors in the dependent variables, creating
spurious correlations even when the unobserved attribute being measured is
unrelated to the dependent variable.
*Both authors are from the University of California, Los Angeles, and Wessels is also from
Erasmus University, Rotterdam. We gratefully acknowledge the research assistance provided by Jim
Brandon, Won Lee, and Erik Sirri and helpful comments from our UCLA colleagues, especially
Julian Franks, David Mayers, Ron Masulis, and Walter Torous. We also received helpful comments
from seminar participants at UCLA and the University of Rochester. Titman received financial
support from the Batterymarch fellowshipprogram and from the UCLA Foundation for Research in
Financial Markets and Institutions. Wessels received financial support from the Netherlands Organization
for the Advancement of Pure Research (Z. W. 0.).
2 The Journal of Finance
This study extends empirical work on capital structure theory in three ways.'
First, it extends the range of theoretical determinants of capital structure by
examining some recently developed theories that have not, as yet, been analyzed
empirically. Second, since some of these theories have different empirical implications
with regard to different types of debt instruments, we analyze separate
measures of short-term, long-term, and convertible debt rather than an aggregate
measure of total debt. Third, a technique is used that explicitly recognizes and
mitigates the measurement problems discussed above.
This technique, which is an extension of the factor-analytic approach to
measuring unobserved or latent variables, is known as linear structural m~deling.~
Very briefly, this method assumes that, although the relevant attributes are not
directly observable, we can observe a number of indicator variables that are
linear functions of one or more attributes and a random error term. There is, in
this specification, a direct analogy with the return-generating process assumed
to hold in the Arbitrage Pricing Theory. While the identifying restrictions
imposed on our model are different, the technique"for estimating it is very similar
to the procedure used by Roll and Ross [29] to test the APT.
Our results suggest that firms with unique or specialized products have relatively
low debt ratios. Uniqueness is categorized by the firms' expenditures on
research and development, selling expenses, and the rate at which employees
voluntarily leave their jobs. We also find that smaller firms tend to use significantly
more short-term debt than larger firms. Our model explains virtually none
of the variation in convertible debt ratios across firms and finds no evidence to
support theoretical work that predicts that debt ratios are related to a firm's
expected growth, non-debt tax shields, volatility, or the collateral value of its
assets. We do, however, find some support for the proposition that profitable
firms have relatively less debt relative to the market value of their equity.
I. Determinants of Capital Structure
In this section, we present a brief discussion of the attributes that different
theories of capital structure suggest may affect the firm's debt-equity choice.
These attributes are denoted asset structure, non-debt tax shields, growth,
uniqueness, industry classification, size, earnings volatility, and profitability. The
attributes, their relation to the optimal capital structure choice, and their observable
indicators are discussed below.
'Recent cross-sectional studies include Toy et al. [40], Ferri and Jones [14], Flath and Knoeber
[15], Marsh [24],Chaplinsky [ l l ] ,Titman [38],Castanias [a], Bradley, Jarrell, and Kim [GI,Auerbach
[2], and Long and Malitz [23]. The papers by Titman [38], Bradley, Jarrell, and Kim [6], Auerbach
[2], and Long and Malitz [23] examine variables that are similar to some of those examined here.
The studies find a negative relation between both research and development and advertising and
leverage but have mixed findings relating to the different measures of non-debt tax shields and
leverage and volatility and leverage. Also see Schwartz and Aronson [30], Scott [31], and Scott and
Martin [32] for evidence of industry effects in capital structure choice.
References to linear structural modeling can also be found in the literature under the headings
of analysis-of-covariance structures, path analysis, causal models, and content-variables models. A
nontechnical introduction to the subject providing many references is Bentler and Bonett [4].
Capital Structure 3
A. Collateral Value of Assets
Most capital structure theories argue that the type of assets owned by a firm
in some way affects its capital structure choice. Scott [33] suggests that, by
selling secured debt, firms increase the value of their equity by expropriating
wealth from their existing unsecured creditor^.^ Arguments put forth by Myers
and Majluf [28] also suggest that firms may find it advantageous to sell secured
debt. Their model demonstrates that there may be costs associated with issuing
securities about which the firm's managers have better information than outside
shareholders. Issuing debt secured by property with known values avoids these
costs. For this reason, firms with assets that can be used as collateral may be
expected to issue more debt to take advantage of this opportunity.
Work by Galai and Masulis [16], Jensen and Meckling [20], and Myers [26]
suggests that stockholders of leveraged firms have an incentive to invest suboptimally
to expropriate wealth from the firm's bondholders. This incentive may
also induce a positive relation between debt xatios and the capacity of firms to
collateralize their debt. If the debt can be collateralized, the borrower is restricted
to use the funds for a specified project. Since no such guarantee can be used for
projects that cannot be collateralized, creditors may require more favorable terms,
which in turn may lead such firms to use equity rather than debt financing.
The tendency of managers to consume more than the optimal level of perquisites
may produce the opposite relation between collateralizable capital and debt
levels. Grossman and Hart [la] suggest that higher debt levels diminish this
tendency because of the increased threat of bankruptcy. Managers of highly
levered firms will also be less able to consume excessive perquisites since
bondholders (or bankers) are inclined to closely monitor such firms. The costs
associated with this agency relation may be higher for firms with assets that are
less collateralizable since monitoring the capital outlays of such firms is probably
more difficult. For this reason, firms with less collateralizable assets may choose
higher debt levels to limit their managers' consumption of perquisites.
The estimated model incorporates two indicators for the collateral value
attribute. They include the ratio of intangible assets to total assets (INTITA)
and the ratio of inventory plus gross plant and equipment to total assets
(IGPITA). The first indicator is negatively related to the collateral value attribute,
while the second is positively related to collateral value.
B. Non-Debt Tax Shields
DeAngelo and Masulis [12] present a model of optimal capital structure that
incorporates the impact of corporate taxes, personal taxes, and non-debt-related
corporate tax shields. They argue that tax deductions for depreciation and
investment tax credits are substitutes for the tax benefits of debt financing. As
a result, firms with large non-debt tax shields relative to their expected cash flow
include less debt in their capital structures.
Indicators of non-debt tax shields include the ratios of investment tax credits
over total assets (ITCITA), depreciat
ABSTRACTThis paper analyzes the explanatory power of some of the recent theories of optimalcapital structure. The study extends empirical work on capital structure theory in threeways. First, it examines a much broader set of capital structure theories, many of whichhave not previously been analyzed empirically. Second, since the theories have differentempirical implications in regard to different types of debt instruments, the authorsanalyze measures of short-term, long-term, and convertible debt rather than an aggregatemeasure of total debt. Third, the study uses a factor-analytic technique thatmitigates the measurement problems encountered when working with proxy variables.IN RECENT YEARS,A number of theories have been proposed to explain thevariation in debt ratios across firms. The theories suggest that firms select capitalstructures depending on attributes that determine the various costs and benefitsassociated with debt and equity financing. Empirical work in this area has laggedbehind the theoretical research, perhaps because the relevant firm attributes areexpressed in terms of fairly abstract concepts that are not directly observable.The basic approach taken in previous empirical work has been to estimateregression equations with proxies for the unobservable theoretical attributes.This approach has a number of problems. First, there may be no unique representationof the attributes we wish to measure. There are often many possibleproxies for a particular attribute, and researchers, lacking theoretical guidelines,may be tempted to select those variables that work best in terms of statisticalgoodness-of-fit criteria, thereby biasing their interpretation of the significancelevels of their tests. Second, it is often difficult to find measures of particularattributes that are unrelated to other attributes that are of interest. Thus, selectedproxy variables may be measuring the effects of several different attributes.Third, since the observed variables are imperfect representations of the attributesthey are supposed to measure, their use in regression analysis introduces anerrors-in-variable problem. Finally, measurement errors in the proxy variablesmay be correlated with measurement errors in the dependent variables, creatingspurious correlations even when the unobserved attribute being measured isunrelated to the dependent variable.*Both authors are from the University of California, Los Angeles, and Wessels is also fromErasmus University, Rotterdam. We gratefully acknowledge the research assistance provided by JimBrandon, Won Lee, and Erik Sirri and helpful comments from our UCLA colleagues, especiallyJulian Franks, David Mayers, Ron Masulis, and Walter Torous. We also received helpful commentsfrom seminar participants at UCLA and the University of Rochester. Titman received financialsupport from the Batterymarch fellowshipprogram and from the UCLA Foundation for Research inFinancial Markets and Institutions. Wessels received financial support from the Netherlands Organization
for the Advancement of Pure Research (Z. W. 0.).
2 The Journal of Finance
This study extends empirical work on capital structure theory in three ways.'
First, it extends the range of theoretical determinants of capital structure by
examining some recently developed theories that have not, as yet, been analyzed
empirically. Second, since some of these theories have different empirical implications
with regard to different types of debt instruments, we analyze separate
measures of short-term, long-term, and convertible debt rather than an aggregate
measure of total debt. Third, a technique is used that explicitly recognizes and
mitigates the measurement problems discussed above.
This technique, which is an extension of the factor-analytic approach to
measuring unobserved or latent variables, is known as linear structural m~deling.~
Very briefly, this method assumes that, although the relevant attributes are not
directly observable, we can observe a number of indicator variables that are
linear functions of one or more attributes and a random error term. There is, in
this specification, a direct analogy with the return-generating process assumed
to hold in the Arbitrage Pricing Theory. While the identifying restrictions
imposed on our model are different, the technique"for estimating it is very similar
to the procedure used by Roll and Ross [29] to test the APT.
Our results suggest that firms with unique or specialized products have relatively
low debt ratios. Uniqueness is categorized by the firms' expenditures on
research and development, selling expenses, and the rate at which employees
voluntarily leave their jobs. We also find that smaller firms tend to use significantly
more short-term debt than larger firms. Our model explains virtually none
of the variation in convertible debt ratios across firms and finds no evidence to
support theoretical work that predicts that debt ratios are related to a firm's
expected growth, non-debt tax shields, volatility, or the collateral value of its
assets. We do, however, find some support for the proposition that profitable
firms have relatively less debt relative to the market value of their equity.
I. Determinants of Capital Structure
In this section, we present a brief discussion of the attributes that different
theories of capital structure suggest may affect the firm's debt-equity choice.
These attributes are denoted asset structure, non-debt tax shields, growth,
uniqueness, industry classification, size, earnings volatility, and profitability. The
attributes, their relation to the optimal capital structure choice, and their observable
indicators are discussed below.
'Recent cross-sectional studies include Toy et al. [40], Ferri and Jones [14], Flath and Knoeber
[15], Marsh [24],Chaplinsky [ l l ] ,Titman [38],Castanias [a], Bradley, Jarrell, and Kim [GI,Auerbach
[2], and Long and Malitz [23]. The papers by Titman [38], Bradley, Jarrell, and Kim [6], Auerbach
[2], and Long and Malitz [23] examine variables that are similar to some of those examined here.
The studies find a negative relation between both research and development and advertising and
leverage but have mixed findings relating to the different measures of non-debt tax shields and
leverage and volatility and leverage. Also see Schwartz and Aronson [30], Scott [31], and Scott and
Martin [32] for evidence of industry effects in capital structure choice.
References to linear structural modeling can also be found in the literature under the headings
of analysis-of-covariance structures, path analysis, causal models, and content-variables models. A
nontechnical introduction to the subject providing many references is Bentler and Bonett [4].
Capital Structure 3
A. Collateral Value of Assets
Most capital structure theories argue that the type of assets owned by a firm
in some way affects its capital structure choice. Scott [33] suggests that, by
selling secured debt, firms increase the value of their equity by expropriating
wealth from their existing unsecured creditor^.^ Arguments put forth by Myers
and Majluf [28] also suggest that firms may find it advantageous to sell secured
debt. Their model demonstrates that there may be costs associated with issuing
securities about which the firm's managers have better information than outside
shareholders. Issuing debt secured by property with known values avoids these
costs. For this reason, firms with assets that can be used as collateral may be
expected to issue more debt to take advantage of this opportunity.
Work by Galai and Masulis [16], Jensen and Meckling [20], and Myers [26]
suggests that stockholders of leveraged firms have an incentive to invest suboptimally
to expropriate wealth from the firm's bondholders. This incentive may
also induce a positive relation between debt xatios and the capacity of firms to
collateralize their debt. If the debt can be collateralized, the borrower is restricted
to use the funds for a specified project. Since no such guarantee can be used for
projects that cannot be collateralized, creditors may require more favorable terms,
which in turn may lead such firms to use equity rather than debt financing.
The tendency of managers to consume more than the optimal level of perquisites
may produce the opposite relation between collateralizable capital and debt
levels. Grossman and Hart [la] suggest that higher debt levels diminish this
tendency because of the increased threat of bankruptcy. Managers of highly
levered firms will also be less able to consume excessive perquisites since
bondholders (or bankers) are inclined to closely monitor such firms. The costs
associated with this agency relation may be higher for firms with assets that are
less collateralizable since monitoring the capital outlays of such firms is probably
more difficult. For this reason, firms with less collateralizable assets may choose
higher debt levels to limit their managers' consumption of perquisites.
The estimated model incorporates two indicators for the collateral value
attribute. They include the ratio of intangible assets to total assets (INTITA)
and the ratio of inventory plus gross plant and equipment to total assets
(IGPITA). The first indicator is negatively related to the collateral value attribute,
while the second is positively related to collateral value.
B. Non-Debt Tax Shields
DeAngelo and Masulis [12] present a model of optimal capital structure that
incorporates the impact of corporate taxes, personal taxes, and non-debt-related
corporate tax shields. They argue that tax deductions for depreciation and
investment tax credits are substitutes for the tax benefits of debt financing. As
a result, firms with large non-debt tax shields relative to their expected cash flow
include less debt in their capital structures.
Indicators of non-debt tax shields include the ratios of investment tax credits
over total assets (ITCITA), depreciat
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