Since the 1970s, the transformational approach has emerged as the dominant perspective leadership studies. Former presidential advisor, political scientist, and historian James MacGregor Burns laid the groundwork for this approach in his book Leadership. Burns identified two forms of leadership, which he labeled transactional and transformational. Transactional leadership is based on leader-member exchange. Leaders trade money, benefits, and recognition for the labor and obedience of followers. They emphasize values that make routine transactions go smoothly-responsibility, fairness, and honesty and take a utilitarian approach to ethical decision making, judging the morality of choices based on their outcomes. Transformational leaders speak to higher-level needs. They spotlight values that are more likely to mobilize and energize followers, like equality, liberty, justice, and freedom.