Stock options usually have very little downside risk for employees. However, options and other share-based compensation may encourage risk-taking behavior to influence share prices, which could have adverse long-term consequences for shareholders. The performance rationale for options does not exist if the options are underwater, meaning the strike price is above the market price of the stock. The book titled "Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths, and Total Nonsense: Profiting from Evidence-Based Management" cites research studies to suggest that equity ownership has no consistent effect on financial performance.