Different forms of business organisation
The Japanese organisation is characterised by many large enterprises; these differ from their UK and US counterparts in that there is concentration on a limited range of business activities and homogeneity of skills and resources. Much of the work though is specialised and there is much subcontracting out. Much has been made of the importance of Kiraetsu as a way of maintaining control over operations.
In contrast with Anglo‐Saxon firms, Japanese firms attempt to maintain authority hierarchy over their suppliers by working with them to ensure constant improvements in productivity and quality, as well by insisting that any cost savings are passed on to the large enterprise. Anglo‐Saxon firms, on the other hand, attempted to maintain control over their supplier by engaging in horizontal and vertical integration. In some ways, a number of Anglo‐Saxon firms of late have moved towards outsourcing. The advantages of this include the fact that there is more competition from a wider source of supply and this can lead to lower prices. There is also the advantage in that many large Anglo‐ Saxon firms that have grown from vertical integration have suffered from the undesirable effects of increased bureaucracy and diseconomies of scale. The privatisation programme and the encouragement of small business by many European governments have forced many Anglo‐Saxon firms to question the benefits of acquiring suppliers through the integration process.
Other Anglo‐Saxon firms, in contrast, such as the Ford Motor Company operating in the UK, are starting to focus on a smaller number of suppliers; these are the most competitive ones. Ford is also trying to exert more control over a smaller number of suppliers. The benefits of this approach would include reduced transaction costs. For example, there is less need to draw up bids from a large number of suppliers. In addition there may be long‐run benefits of building up suppliers you can trust, as well as reduced risks of opportunism, according to the Williamson approach (1981). This mixed approach may become more popular in the future. Indeed, a few years ago, it was believed that the Japanese approach was the way forward. Much was made of the importance of having flexible labour markets in the UK. However, in practice, firms operating in the UK have been more interested in achieving flexible working hours to cut costs rather than focusing on allowing workers to complete flexible tasks and encouraging job rotation within the firm, as has often occurred in Japan. However there are certain limitations in trying to transplant Japanese practices into Western plants, no matter how superior the skill maybe.
Issues of trust and variations in culture become very much apparent and some practices work better in some societies but not in all others. With reference to Japan, it is possible that alternative organisational structures may be considered in view of the current economic crisis. For example, the possibility of merger activity as a possible solution may prove a viable alternative for generating economic activity as well as a more open approach to foreign trade. There have been many mergers in the banking sectors. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Japanese started to initiate Western practices in the early post‐war period when little was understood of a specific Japanese approach to management. Indeed, recent evidence by Williams and Willis (1995) has suggested that Japanese techniques such as just‐in‐time, pioneered in the 1980s, were little more than a variation of Fordism.
Some further contrast to organisational structure
Japanese management structure has also been shown to be much flatter when compared with Western structure. To some extent, in the 1980s and early 1990s, Western firms began to adjust to a flatter structure in order to become more cost‐competitive. This has often involved the removal of the various layers of middle management. However, Japanese structure still differs fundamentally from other models such as found in the UK. For example, specialist firms are embedded in elaborate networks of mutual commitments which reduce their autonomy and ability toIssues of trust and variations in culture become very much apparent and some practices work better in some societies but not in all others. With reference to Japan, it is possible that alternative organisational structures may be considered in view of the current economic crisis. For example, the possibility of merger activity as a possible solution may prove a viable alternative for generating economic activity as well as a more open approach to foreign trade. There have been many mergers in the banking sectors. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Japanese started to initiate Western practices in the early post‐war period when little was understood of a specific Japanese approach to management. Indeed, recent evidence by Williams and Willis (1995) has suggested that Japanese techniques such as just‐in‐time, pioneered in the 1980s, were little more than a variation of Fordism.
Some further contrast to organisational structure
Japanese management structure has also been shown to be much flatter when compared with Western structure. To some extent, in the 1980s and early 1990s, Western firms began to adjust to a flatter structure in order to become more cost‐competitive. This has often involved the removal of the various layers of middle management. However, Japanese structure still differs fundamentally from other models such as found in the UK. For example, specialist firms are embedded in elaborate networks of mutual commitments which reduce their autonomy and ability toIssues of trust and variations in culture become very much apparent and some practices work better in some societies but not in all others. With reference to Japan, it is possible that alternative organisational structures may be considered in view of the current economic crisis. For example, the possibility of merger activity as a possible solution may prove a viable alternative for generating economic activity as well as a more open approach to foreign trade. There have been many mergers in the banking sectors. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Japanese started to initiate Western practices in the early post‐war period when little was understood of a specific Japanese approach to management. Indeed, recent evidence by Williams and Willis (1995) has suggested that Japanese techniques such as just‐in‐time, pioneered in the 1980s, were little more than a variation of Fordism.
Some further contrast to organisational structure
Japanese management structure has also been shown to be much flatter when compared with Western structure. To some extent, in the 1980s and early 1990s, Western firms began to adjust to a flatter structure in order to become more cost‐competitive. This has often involved the removal of the various layers of middle management. However, Japanese structure still differs fundamentally from other models such as found in the UK. For example, specialist firms are embedded in elaborate networks of mutual commitments which reduce their autonomy and ability to change suppliers, customers and industry quickly. In addition, there is a high level of managerial autonomy from shareholders. Managerial élites are isolated from the market for corporate control and can afford to ignore short‐term capital market pressures. There is a low level of shareholder control and a desire by management to increase market share.
This is in contrast to Western cultures, where other objectives including profit maximisation, the maximisation of perks and the playing off of various coalitions become important. Furthermore, internal mobility within Japanese companies is high, rather than mobility from company to company, which takes place more in Western cultures. There is also heavy investment in skills; there has been support and financial incentives from government to support industries. There is a further link between Japanese banks and state agencies in contrast to Anglo‐Saxon countries. The commitment to the Japanese company by the workforce leads to decentralisation of decision making and flexible control systems, which rely on trust. This makes or allows for the possibility of changes without major external shocks.
The South Korean organisation structure known as the Chaebol has some similarity to the Japanese approach, though differs in the following ways. The Korean approach takes a more patrimonial approach to management; there is more limited trust, similar toWestern firms. The strong influence of family ownership in the decision‐making process allows for a highly centralised decision‐making process; subcontracting is used much less than in Japan. However, large Korean firms are similar to Japanese firms in that they focus on very specific activities. Western manufacturers, particularly in the UK, have begun to focus on smaller units though will adjust to small‐scale production of alternative products if a market was to materialise. There is a lack of investment in high technology. Anglo‐Saxon firms, however, have yet further similarities to Korean firms in that labour turnover is more apparent in both, less like the Japanese approach discussed earlier. In contrast, expatriate Chinese family businesses are a common unit in Taiwan and Hong Kong; and most of the activities of East Asian units are specialised, with extensive reliance on subcontractors. Like the Japanese, these firms are dependent on trust relationships. There is also the reluctance to rely on bank loans or selling shares on stock markets.
Dependence on the state tends to be lower in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Their respective governments are less likely to intervene than in the case of Japan, as was seen in the recent response by Japan of injecting large sums of money into the economy to cope with the recent do
องค์กรธุรกิจในรูปแบบต่าง ๆองค์กรญี่ปุ่นมีประสบการ์ในวิสาหกิจขนาดใหญ่ เหล่านี้ต่างจากคู่ของสหราชอาณาจักรและเรายังมีความเข้มข้นในช่วงจำกัดของกิจกรรมทางธุรกิจและ homogeneity ของทักษะและทรัพยากร มากในการทำงานแต่เป็นเฉพาะ และมีมากรับเหมารายย่อยออก มากได้ความสำคัญของ Kiraetsu การรักษาควบคุมการดำเนินงานIn contrast with Anglo‐Saxon บริษัท บริษัทญี่ปุ่นพยายามรักษาอำนาจมากกว่าผู้ทำงานกับพวกเขาเพื่อให้แน่ใจว่าคงปรับปรุงผลผลิตและคุณภาพ เช่น โดย insisting ที่ ประหยัดค่าใช้จ่ายใด ๆ จะถูกส่งผ่านในองค์กรขนาดใหญ่ บริษัท Anglo‐Saxon คง พยายามรักษาควบคุมซัพพลายเออร์ของพวกเขา โดยในแนวนอน และแนวตั้งรวม ในบางวิธี จำนวนของสายบริษัท Anglo‐Saxon ได้ย้ายไปจ้าง ข้อดีของการนี้รวมถึงข้อเท็จจริงว่า มีการแข่งขันเพิ่มเติมจากแหล่งข้อมูลที่กว้างของ และการลดราคา มีข้อดีที่หลายบริษัทแซก Anglo‐ ขนาดใหญ่ที่มีการเติบโตจากการรวมแนวได้รับความเดือดร้อนจาก diseconomies มาตราส่วนและผลไม่พึงปรารถนาของระบบราชการเพิ่มขึ้น โปรแกรม privatisation และสนับสนุนธุรกิจขนาดเล็กโดยรัฐบาลในยุโรปได้บังคับหลายบริษัท Anglo‐Saxon เพื่อประโยชน์ของการหาซัพพลายเออร์ผ่านการรวมคำถามบริษัทอื่น ๆ Anglo‐Saxon คมชัด เช่นฟอร์ดมอเตอร์ บริษัทในสหราชอาณาจักร จะเริ่มให้ความสำคัญกับจำนวนซัพพลายเออร์ น้อย เหล่านี้เป็นตัวแข่งขันมากที่สุด ฟอร์ดยังได้พยายามออกแรงควบคุมจำนวนซัพพลายเออร์ขนาดเล็กมากขึ้น ประโยชน์ของวิธีการนี้จะรวมต้นทุนธุรกรรมลดลง ตัวอย่าง มีน้อยจำเป็นต้องต้องการประมูลจากผู้จำหน่ายเป็นจำนวนมาก นอกจากนี้ อาจมีประโยชน์ long‐run ของผู้จำหน่ายที่คุณสามารถไว้วางใจ และความเสี่ยงที่ลดลงของ opportunism สร้างตามวิธี Williamson (1981) นี้ผสมวิธีอาจไม่นิยมมากขึ้นในอนาคต แน่นอน ไม่กี่ปีที่ผ่านมา มันไม่เชื่อว่าว่า วิธีที่ญี่ปุ่นเป็นแบบไปข้างหน้า มากทำการสำคัญของการมีตลาดแรงงานมีความยืดหยุ่นในสหราชอาณาจักร อย่างไรก็ตาม ในทางปฏิบัติ บริษัทในสหราชอาณาจักรได้รับความสนใจในการบรรลุการยืดหยุ่นเวลาทำงานเพื่อลดค่าใช้จ่าย มากกว่าที่เน้นให้ผู้ปฏิบัติงานให้งานมีความยืดหยุ่นสมบูรณ์ และส่งเสริมงานการหมุนเวียนภายในบริษัท เป็นมักจะเกิดขึ้นในญี่ปุ่น อย่างไรก็ตาม มีข้อจำกัดบางอย่างในการพยายามเปลี่ยนแนวทางญี่ปุ่นเป็นพืชตะวันตก ไม่ว่าเหนือกว่าทักษะทีIssues of trust and variations in culture become very much apparent and some practices work better in some societies but not in all others. With reference to Japan, it is possible that alternative organisational structures may be considered in view of the current economic crisis. For example, the possibility of merger activity as a possible solution may prove a viable alternative for generating economic activity as well as a more open approach to foreign trade. There have been many mergers in the banking sectors. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Japanese started to initiate Western practices in the early post‐war period when little was understood of a specific Japanese approach to management. Indeed, recent evidence by Williams and Willis (1995) has suggested that Japanese techniques such as just‐in‐time, pioneered in the 1980s, were little more than a variation of Fordism.Some further contrast to organisational structureยังได้แสดงโครงสร้างการจัดการของญี่ปุ่นเป็น flatter มากเมื่อเปรียบเทียบกับโครงสร้างของตะวันตก บ้าง ในไฟต์และช่วงปี 1990 บริษัทตะวันตกเริ่มปรับโครงสร้าง flatter ให้ cost‐competitive เพิ่มเติม นี้มักจะมีเกี่ยวข้องเอาของชั้นต่าง ๆ ของการจัดการกลาง อย่างไรก็ตาม โครงสร้างภาษาญี่ปุ่นยังคงแตกต่างพื้นฐานจากรุ่นอื่น ๆ เช่นพบในสหราชอาณาจักร ตัวอย่าง บริษัทผู้เชี่ยวชาญด้านฝังอยู่ในเครือข่ายที่ประณีตของข้อผูกมัดซึ่งกันและกันซึ่งลดอิสระของพวกเขา และ toIssues ความน่าเชื่อถือและความแตกต่างในวัฒนธรรมกลายเป็นชัดมาก และบางปฏิบัติทำงานได้ดี ในบางสังคม แต่ไม่ใช่ ในอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด โปร่งญี่ปุ่น มันเป็นไปได้ว่า โครงสร้าง organisational อื่นอาจเป็นมุมมองวิกฤติเศรษฐกิจปัจจุบัน ตัวอย่าง กิจกรรมควบเป็นแก้ไขปัญหาเป็นไปได้ที่อาจเกิดขึ้นอาจพิสูจน์เป็นทางเลือกที่ทำงานสำหรับการสร้างกิจกรรมทางเศรษฐกิจเช่นเดียวกับวิธีการแบบเปิดมากขึ้นเพื่อการค้าต่างประเทศ มีการครอบงำมากในภาคการธนาคาร นอกจากนี้ จะได้รับการแสดงวิธีการที่ญี่ปุ่นเริ่มต้นประเดิมตะวันตกปฏิบัติในช่วง post‐war ระยะเมื่อน้อยไม่เข้าใจวิธีการญี่ปุ่นเฉพาะเพื่อการบริหารจัดการ จริง หลักฐานล่าสุด โดยวิลเลียมส์และวิลส์ (1995) ได้แนะนำว่า เทคนิคญี่ปุ่นเช่น just‐in‐time เป็นผู้บุกเบิกในทศวรรษ 1980 ได้มากกว่ารูปแบบของ FordismSome further contrast to organisational structureJapanese management structure has also been shown to be much flatter when compared with Western structure. To some extent, in the 1980s and early 1990s, Western firms began to adjust to a flatter structure in order to become more cost‐competitive. This has often involved the removal of the various layers of middle management. However, Japanese structure still differs fundamentally from other models such as found in the UK. For example, specialist firms are embedded in elaborate networks of mutual commitments which reduce their autonomy and ability toIssues of trust and variations in culture become very much apparent and some practices work better in some societies but not in all others. With reference to Japan, it is possible that alternative organisational structures may be considered in view of the current economic crisis. For example, the possibility of merger activity as a possible solution may prove a viable alternative for generating economic activity as well as a more open approach to foreign trade. There have been many mergers in the banking sectors. Furthermore, it has been shown how the Japanese started to initiate Western practices in the early post‐war period when little was understood of a specific Japanese approach to management. Indeed, recent evidence by Williams and Willis (1995) has suggested that Japanese techniques such as just‐in‐time, pioneered in the 1980s, were little more than a variation of Fordism.Some further contrast to organisational structureJapanese management structure has also been shown to be much flatter when compared with Western structure. To some extent, in the 1980s and early 1990s, Western firms began to adjust to a flatter structure in order to become more cost‐competitive. This has often involved the removal of the various layers of middle management. However, Japanese structure still differs fundamentally from other models such as found in the UK. For example, specialist firms are embedded in elaborate networks of mutual commitments which reduce their autonomy and ability to change suppliers, customers and industry quickly. In addition, there is a high level of managerial autonomy from shareholders. Managerial élites are isolated from the market for corporate control and can afford to ignore short‐term capital market pressures. There is a low level of shareholder control and a desire by management to increase market share.This is in contrast to Western cultures, where other objectives including profit maximisation, the maximisation of perks and the playing off of various coalitions become important. Furthermore, internal mobility within Japanese companies is high, rather than mobility from company to company, which takes place more in Western cultures. There is also heavy investment in skills; there has been support and financial incentives from government to support industries. There is a further link between Japanese banks and state agencies in contrast to Anglo‐Saxon countries. The commitment to the Japanese company by the workforce leads to decentralisation of decision making and flexible control systems, which rely on trust. This makes or allows for the possibility of changes without major external shocks.
The South Korean organisation structure known as the Chaebol has some similarity to the Japanese approach, though differs in the following ways. The Korean approach takes a more patrimonial approach to management; there is more limited trust, similar toWestern firms. The strong influence of family ownership in the decision‐making process allows for a highly centralised decision‐making process; subcontracting is used much less than in Japan. However, large Korean firms are similar to Japanese firms in that they focus on very specific activities. Western manufacturers, particularly in the UK, have begun to focus on smaller units though will adjust to small‐scale production of alternative products if a market was to materialise. There is a lack of investment in high technology. Anglo‐Saxon firms, however, have yet further similarities to Korean firms in that labour turnover is more apparent in both, less like the Japanese approach discussed earlier. In contrast, expatriate Chinese family businesses are a common unit in Taiwan and Hong Kong; and most of the activities of East Asian units are specialised, with extensive reliance on subcontractors. Like the Japanese, these firms are dependent on trust relationships. There is also the reluctance to rely on bank loans or selling shares on stock markets.
Dependence on the state tends to be lower in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Their respective governments are less likely to intervene than in the case of Japan, as was seen in the recent response by Japan of injecting large sums of money into the economy to cope with the recent do
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