Findings from research on science education convey similar
trends. Gallagher (2000) notes a predominance of teaching for
lower-order skills and a failure to target deep conceptual
understanding. Typical science instructional practice at the
elementary level is depicted as ‘‘. . .teacher centered, textbook
driven, and geared toward achieving lower level knowledge and
comprehension objectives. . . [with] at best, few student-centered,
inquiry-based activities’’ (Schwartz, Abd-El-Khalick, & Lederman,
2000, p. 191).