Introduction
The Asteroidea is one of the largest and most familiar classes within the Phylum Echinodermata. These animals, commonly known as sea stars or starfishes, form a diverse and speciose group. There are approximately 1600 extant species (Hyman 1955; Clark 1977; Clark and Downey 1992) which are found throughout the world's oceans. Following the classification of Blake (1987), these species are grouped into seven orders: Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida.
Like other echinoderms, asteroids are important members of many marine benthic communities. They can be voracious predators, having significant impacts on community structure. For example, Paine (1966) used Pisaster ochraceus to illustrate his concept of the role keystone species play in community ecology. The crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, is particularly well-known because it can cause extreme detrimental effects to coral reefs, particularly during population outbreaks (Moran 1988).
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowochre sea stars Crown of thorns sea stars feeding on coral
Figure 1: Pisaster ochraceus and Acanthaster planci, two asteroids of great ecological significance.
Pisaster image by Sherry Ballard, courtesy CalPhotos, copyright © 1999 California Academy of Sciences. Acanthaster image copyright © Borut Furlan.
The controversial Concentricycloidea (a proposed sixth class of the Echinodermata; Baker et al. 1986, Rowe et al. 1988, Pearse and Pearse 1994) have been diagnosed as unusual asteroids (Smith 1988, Belyaev 1990, Janies and Mooi 1999). Their relationship to other asteroid taxa is not well resolved, but alliances with species from the Velatida and the Forcipulatida have been proposed. The unique morphology of the concentricycloids makes it difficult to assign this group to the recognized asteroid orders and is cited as sufficient distinction for class recognition.
Characteristics
Like other asterozoans, asteroids have a characteristic star-shaped body plan consisting of a central disc and multiple (typically 5) radiating arms. Asteroids are most easily distinguished from other asterozoans (the Ophiuroidea) by the structure of the arms. In asteroids, skeletal support for the arms is provided by the ossicles of the body wall, which merge with those of the central disc, giving the arm a very broad based attachment to the disc. This skeletal arrangement allows for the extension of a comparatively large coelomic cavity from the central disc into the arms, which serves to hold some of the animal's organ systems, namely the gonads and pyloric caeca. Additionally, this skeletal arrangement also limits lateral flexion of the arms. Locomotion by asteroids is accomplished almost exclusively by means of the podia (tubefeet) from the water vascular system. Differences in morphology between asteroids and ophiuroids are described further in Blake (1998) and Dean (1999).
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowAsterias rubens Culcita novaeguineae
Figure 2: A typical starfish, Asterias rubens, with tubefeet visible on the edge of the arm in the foreground. Image copyright © 2004 Kåre Telnes. Cushion stars, like this Culcita novaeguineae, may have arms so short that they look more like a ball than a star. Image copyright © 2003 Massimo Boyer.
Taxonomy of asteroids usually is based on externally observable characteristics of the skeleton, particularly the primary ossicular series which define the body wall (ambulacrals, adambulacrals, marginals, terminals, actinals, abactinals), as well as secondary ossicles such as spines, spinelets and pedicellariae. Works by Perrier (1884) and Sladen (1889) laid the taxonomic foundation of most asteroid groups. Many other authors have contributed to and/or refined the asteroid classification scheme, notably Fisher (1911, 1928), Verrill (1914), Fell (1963), Spencer and Wright (1966) and McKnight (1975). Blake and Elliot (2003) provide clear definition of ossicle terminology. Blake (1987) provides classification and diagnoses of asteroid groups.
Perhaps the most important ossicular series defining the Asteroidea is the ambulacral column, found along the oral surface of the disk and radiating arms and associated with two or four rows of podia. The asteroid ambulacrum is distinguished by erect ambulacral ossicles arranged in series along the length of the ambulacral column. Critical differences in structure and arrangement of the ossicles of the ambulacral column define two groups of asteroids: an extinct fauna restricted to the Paleozoic and the mostly extant (mostly) post-Paleozoic asteroids (Blake 1987, Gale 1987). Blake and Hagdorn (2003) recently recognized this distinction formally with diagnosis of a new subclass: Ambuloasteroidea, containing the Paleozoic Calliasterellidae and Compsasteridae in addition to post-Paleozoic asteroids (Infraclass Neoasteroidea Gale 1987).
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowViews of both the oral and aboral surface of the starfish Transverse section and perspective view of a generalized arm
Figure 3: Morphology of asteroids. A, aboral and oral surfaces of a generalized asteroid. Image © BIODIDAC. B, transverse section and perspective view of a generalized arm (soft tissues and spines removed); note the arched ambulacral ossicles forming the ambulacral groove and the dorsal podial pores between ambulacral ossicles. One podium (tubefoot) on the left is drawn in outline only to illustrate how the podia descend through the podial pores. Image © 2004 Emily Knott.
Application of the extraxial-axial theory (EAT) to asteroid morphology significantly aids our understanding of ossicle homologies within the Asteroidea and between asteroids and other echinoderms (Mooi and David 2000, Blake and Elliot 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). According to the EAT, the ambulacral and terminal ossicles of asteroids are axial elements. These ossicles are formed according to the Ocular Plate Rule (OPR) and are associated with the developing water vascular system during ontogeny as are the axial ossicles of other echinoderms. The remaining asteroid ossicle series are extraxial elements, which can be added during ontogeny without any particular ordering system (although secondarily ordered serial homologous elements are common in the asteroids, e.g. adambulacrals and marginals). In comparison to axial elements, extraxial ossicles are prone to much more evolutionary lability (Mooi and David 1997).
Synapomorphies of the crown group: Ambuloasteroidea
Summarized from Blake (1998; 2000), Mooi and David (2000) and Blake and Hagdorn (2003).
Deep ambulacral groove—The paired ambulacral ossicles are erect and arch across the arm axis forming a clearly defined furrow. The extent of the arch and definition of the furrow are expected to be weaker in the earliest asteroids, but these characters are difficult to observe in most fossil specimens.
Dorsal podial pores—The dorsal podia pores are passageways between ambulacral ossicles through which the tubefeet descend. These pores allow for internal protection of the ampullae, dorsal outpockets of the podia, which contract and expand with extension and retraction of the podia. The ampullae of earlier asteroids were external, in closed, cup-like podial basins formed by the ossicles of the ambulacral column.
Offset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles and differentiation of articulation structures in ossicles of the ambulacrum—These features describe a variety of related apomorphic characteristics of ambuloasteroids. Offset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles allows for soft tissue connections between the ambulacral and both adjacent adambulacrals which is further enhanced with differentiation of articulation structures on the ossicles. This arrangement allows more complex movement in the ambuloasteroids. In non-ambuloasteroids a single ambulacral ossicle abuts a single adambulacral.
Presence of an odontophore—The odontophore is a small interradial ossicle associated with the mouth angle ossicle. The odontophore is expected to the homologue of the axillary in Paleozoic asteroids.
Fossil Record
The earliest asteroids appeared in the Ordovician (Figure 4). However, at least two major faunal transitions have occurred within the Asteroidea concomitantly with large extinction events: in the Late Devonian (Blake and Glass in Webster et. al. 1999) and in the Late Permian (Blake 1987, Gale 1987, Blake et al. 2000, Blake and Elliot 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). The asteroid orders as described here contain all extant and some extinct species which have a morphology distinct from Paleozoic forms (i.e. Ambuloasteroidea; see Characteristics, Blake 1982, 1987, 1988; Gale 1987, Blake and Elliott 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). The asteroid orders are thought to have appeared and diversified very rapidly (within approximately 60 million years) during the Lower and early Middle Jurassic, frustrating our understanding of ordinal relationships (see discussion below).
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowHudsonaster, an early asteroid from the Ordovician
Figure 4: Hudsonaster sp. (USNM 40882), an early asteroid from the Ordovician.
Image copyright © Daniel B. Blake
Relationships among Paleozoic asteroids, as well as between Paleozoic asteroids and extant asteroids, are difficult if not impossible to determine because of the limitations of the asteroid fossil record. Asteroid fossils are rare because 1) the skeletal elements rapidly dissociate after death of the animals 2) asteroids typically have a large body cavity that collapses with deterioration of the organs, resulting in misshapen forms and 3) asteroids often live on hard substrates which are not conducive to fossil formation. From the limited fossil evidence that is available we know that the basic body plan of the
แนะนำAsteroidea เป็นหนึ่งของชั้นเรียนมากที่สุด และคุ้นเคยมากที่สุดภายในไฟลัม Echinodermata สัตว์เหล่านี้ โดยทั่วไปเรียกว่าซีสตาร์หรือ starfishes แบบฟอร์มกลุ่มหลากหลายและ speciose มีประมาณ 1600 ยังพันธุ์ (Hyman 1955 คลาร์ก 1977 คลาร์กและเบิร์ดดาวนีย์ 1992) ซึ่งพบทั่วมหาสมุทรของโลก ต่อการจัดประเภทของเบลก (1987), สายพันธุ์เหล่านี้แบ่งได้เจ็ดใบสั่ง: Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida และ Velatidaเช่น echinoderms อื่น ๆ ดาวเคราะห์น้อยเป็นสมาชิกสำคัญของชุมชนธรรมชาติทางทะเลมากมาย พวกเขาสามารถล่าละโมบ มีผลกระทบอย่างมีนัยสำคัญในโครงสร้างชุมชน ตัวอย่าง Paine (1966) ใช้ Pisaster ochraceus เพื่อแสดงแนวคิดของเขาเล่นบทบาทภาพชนิดในระบบนิเวศของชุมชน หนาม Acanthaster planci เป็นที่รู้จักโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งเนื่องจากอาจทำให้ผลกระทบผลดีมากกับปะการัง โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งระหว่างการแพร่กระจายประชากร (1988 โมแรน)คลิกที่รูปเพื่อดูขนาดใหญ่รุ่นและข้อมูลในแบบใหม่ windowochre ทะเลดาวมงกุฎหนามดาวทะเลอาหารบนปะการังรูปที่ 1: Pisaster ochraceus และ Acanthaster planci สองดาวเคราะห์น้อยของระบบนิเวศความสำคัญภาพ pisaster โดยเชอร์รี่เรียลตี้บัล CalPhotos อนุเคราะห์ ลิขสิทธิ์ © 1999 แคลิฟอร์เนียสถาบันวิทยาศาสตร์ Acanthaster ภาพลิขสิทธิ์ © Borut FurlanConcentricycloidea แย้ง (แบบเสนอหกชั้น Echinodermata เบเกอร์ et al. 1986, Rowe et al. 1988, Pearse และ Pearse 1994) ได้รับการวินิจฉัยเป็นดาวเคราะห์น้อยผิดปกติ (Smith 1988, Belyaev 1990, Janies และ Mooi 1999) ความสัมพันธ์ของ taxa อื่น ๆ ดาวเคราะห์น้อยไม่ดีแก้ไข แต่พันธมิตรกับสปีชีส์ Velatida และ Forcipulatida ได้รับการเสนอชื่อ สัณฐานวิทยาเฉพาะของ concentricycloids ทำให้ยากที่จะกำหนดกลุ่มนี้ใบสั่งที่ดาวเคราะห์น้อยที่รู้จัก และเรียกว่าความแตกต่างเพียงพอสำหรับการเรียนรู้ลักษณะเช่น asterozoans อื่น ๆ ดาวเคราะห์น้อยมีแผนร่างกายรูปดาวลักษณะที่ประกอบด้วยดิสก์กลางและหลายแขน radiating (โดยทั่วไป 5) ดาวเคราะห์น้อยสุดได้แตกต่างไปจาก asterozoans อื่น ๆ (Ophiuroidea) โดยโครงสร้างของแขน ดาวเคราะห์น้อย มีแขนสนับสนุนอีก ด้วยกระดูกของผนังร่างกาย ที่ผสานกับดิสก์กลาง ให้แขนกว้างมากตามสิ่งที่แนบแบบดิสก์ นี้จัดอีกได้สำหรับส่วนขยายของโพรง coelomic ใหญ่ดีอย่างหนึ่งจากกลางแผ่นดิสก์เข้าไปในแผ่นดิน ซึ่งทำหน้าที่เก็บของระบบอวัยวะของสัตว์ ได้แก่ต่อมบ่งเพศและ pyloric caeca นอกจากนี้ นี้จัดอีกยังจำกัด flexion ด้านข้างของแขน Locomotion โดยดาวเคราะห์น้อยได้เกือบเฉพาะ โดย podia (tubefeet) จากระบบหลอดเลือดน้ำ ความแตกต่างในสัณฐานวิทยาระหว่างดาวเคราะห์น้อยและ ophiuroids ได้อธิบายเพิ่มเติมในเบลก (1998) และคณบดี (1999)Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowAsterias rubens Culcita novaeguineaeFigure 2: A typical starfish, Asterias rubens, with tubefeet visible on the edge of the arm in the foreground. Image copyright © 2004 Kåre Telnes. Cushion stars, like this Culcita novaeguineae, may have arms so short that they look more like a ball than a star. Image copyright © 2003 Massimo Boyer.Taxonomy of asteroids usually is based on externally observable characteristics of the skeleton, particularly the primary ossicular series which define the body wall (ambulacrals, adambulacrals, marginals, terminals, actinals, abactinals), as well as secondary ossicles such as spines, spinelets and pedicellariae. Works by Perrier (1884) and Sladen (1889) laid the taxonomic foundation of most asteroid groups. Many other authors have contributed to and/or refined the asteroid classification scheme, notably Fisher (1911, 1928), Verrill (1914), Fell (1963), Spencer and Wright (1966) and McKnight (1975). Blake and Elliot (2003) provide clear definition of ossicle terminology. Blake (1987) provides classification and diagnoses of asteroid groups.Perhaps the most important ossicular series defining the Asteroidea is the ambulacral column, found along the oral surface of the disk and radiating arms and associated with two or four rows of podia. The asteroid ambulacrum is distinguished by erect ambulacral ossicles arranged in series along the length of the ambulacral column. Critical differences in structure and arrangement of the ossicles of the ambulacral column define two groups of asteroids: an extinct fauna restricted to the Paleozoic and the mostly extant (mostly) post-Paleozoic asteroids (Blake 1987, Gale 1987). Blake and Hagdorn (2003) recently recognized this distinction formally with diagnosis of a new subclass: Ambuloasteroidea, containing the Paleozoic Calliasterellidae and Compsasteridae in addition to post-Paleozoic asteroids (Infraclass Neoasteroidea Gale 1987).Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowViews of both the oral and aboral surface of the starfish Transverse section and perspective view of a generalized armFigure 3: Morphology of asteroids. A, aboral and oral surfaces of a generalized asteroid. Image © BIODIDAC. B, transverse section and perspective view of a generalized arm (soft tissues and spines removed); note the arched ambulacral ossicles forming the ambulacral groove and the dorsal podial pores between ambulacral ossicles. One podium (tubefoot) on the left is drawn in outline only to illustrate how the podia descend through the podial pores. Image © 2004 Emily Knott.Application of the extraxial-axial theory (EAT) to asteroid morphology significantly aids our understanding of ossicle homologies within the Asteroidea and between asteroids and other echinoderms (Mooi and David 2000, Blake and Elliot 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). According to the EAT, the ambulacral and terminal ossicles of asteroids are axial elements. These ossicles are formed according to the Ocular Plate Rule (OPR) and are associated with the developing water vascular system during ontogeny as are the axial ossicles of other echinoderms. The remaining asteroid ossicle series are extraxial elements, which can be added during ontogeny without any particular ordering system (although secondarily ordered serial homologous elements are common in the asteroids, e.g. adambulacrals and marginals). In comparison to axial elements, extraxial ossicles are prone to much more evolutionary lability (Mooi and David 1997).Synapomorphies of the crown group: AmbuloasteroideaSummarized from Blake (1998; 2000), Mooi and David (2000) and Blake and Hagdorn (2003).Deep ambulacral groove—The paired ambulacral ossicles are erect and arch across the arm axis forming a clearly defined furrow. The extent of the arch and definition of the furrow are expected to be weaker in the earliest asteroids, but these characters are difficult to observe in most fossil specimens.Dorsal podial pores—The dorsal podia pores are passageways between ambulacral ossicles through which the tubefeet descend. These pores allow for internal protection of the ampullae, dorsal outpockets of the podia, which contract and expand with extension and retraction of the podia. The ampullae of earlier asteroids were external, in closed, cup-like podial basins formed by the ossicles of the ambulacral column.Offset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles and differentiation of articulation structures in ossicles of the ambulacrum—These features describe a variety of related apomorphic characteristics of ambuloasteroids. Offset positioning of the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles allows for soft tissue connections between the ambulacral and both adjacent adambulacrals which is further enhanced with differentiation of articulation structures on the ossicles. This arrangement allows more complex movement in the ambuloasteroids. In non-ambuloasteroids a single ambulacral ossicle abuts a single adambulacral.Presence of an odontophore—The odontophore is a small interradial ossicle associated with the mouth angle ossicle. The odontophore is expected to the homologue of the axillary in Paleozoic asteroids.Fossil RecordThe earliest asteroids appeared in the Ordovician (Figure 4). However, at least two major faunal transitions have occurred within the Asteroidea concomitantly with large extinction events: in the Late Devonian (Blake and Glass in Webster et. al. 1999) and in the Late Permian (Blake 1987, Gale 1987, Blake et al. 2000, Blake and Elliot 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). The asteroid orders as described here contain all extant and some extinct species which have a morphology distinct from Paleozoic forms (i.e. Ambuloasteroidea; see Characteristics, Blake 1982, 1987, 1988; Gale 1987, Blake and Elliott 2003, Blake and Hagdorn 2003). The asteroid orders are thought to have appeared and diversified very rapidly (within approximately 60 million years) during the Lower and early Middle Jurassic, frustrating our understanding of ordinal relationships (see discussion below).Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new windowHudsonaster, an early asteroid from the OrdovicianFigure 4: Hudsonaster sp. (USNM 40882), an early asteroid from the Ordovician. Image copyright © Daniel B. BlakeRelationships among Paleozoic asteroids, as well as between Paleozoic asteroids and extant asteroids, are difficult if not impossible to determine because of the limitations of the asteroid fossil record. Asteroid fossils are rare because 1) the skeletal elements rapidly dissociate after death of the animals 2) asteroids typically have a large body cavity that collapses with deterioration of the organs, resulting in misshapen forms and 3) asteroids often live on hard substrates which are not conducive to fossil formation. From the limited fossil evidence that is available we know that the basic body plan of the
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