A final implication relates to the lack of significant
findings in Burundi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal, and
Zimbabwe. In Rwanda, an overwhelming majority of
men reported accompanying their wives to ANC – the
highest male attendance rate compared to other countries,
while Burundi had the lowest accompaniment rate.
Our findings suggest that the pervasive male norms in
these settings are not substantially impacted by women’s
empowerment status. Another possible explanation for
the null findings may be that Rwanda and Zimbabwe
also had the highest total women’s empowerment scores
compared to other selected countries. For example, while
empowerment scores were highest in Zimbabwe (6.3 out
of 9), only a third of men reported attending at least one
antenatal check-up with their spouse. Zimbabwe also
had the highest proportion of women receiving all four
recommended ANC visits as compared to other selected
countries, which could indicate a stronger cultural norm
that defines pregnancy as a woman’s domain. Male involvement
in these countries may reflect other social and health
systems factors not captured in the DHS empowerment
measure