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2.3. Baking performance testBaking

2.3. Baking performance test
Baking performance test was conducted using a Rheofermentometer F3 (CHOPIN, France). A portion of 250 g of dough was fermented for 3 h at 28.5 C with 2 kg of weight over it according to the Chopin protocol.
From the test two curves were obtained: the dough development curve by an optical sensor, which shows the variation of dough height as a function of time during fermentation; and the gas production and retention curves by a pressure sensor. The following parameters were obtained from the dough development curve: maximum height (Hm), time at maximum height (t1), final height (h) and the weakening coefficient (W) calculated according to Eq. (1):
W ¼ ðHm hÞ100 (1)
Hm
From the gas curves (production and retention of gas as a function of time), the following parameters were obtained: maximum pressure (Hm0 ), time at maximum pressure (t10 ), time at gas release (tx), total volume of gas produced (Vt), volume of gas retained (Vr) and the retention coefficient (R) calculated as Eq. (2):
Vr
R ¼ 100 (2)
Vt
An additional parameter, adjusted maximum height (Hmadj), was calculated (Eq. (3)) in order to identify the dough development independently from gas production which depends on the yeast activity instead of dough properties:
Hmadj ¼ H m Vt0 (3) Vt wherein Vt0 is the total volume of gas obtained from control dough.
2.4. Uniaxial extension tests
Uniaxial extension tests were performed using a TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK) equipped with the accessory Kieffer Dough & Gluten Extensibility Rig and following the protocol described by the manufacturer (SMS, 1995).
The mold was covered with a thin layer of mineral oil and Teflon strips were placed in the mold to aid sample removal. Immediately after kneading, a portion of dough was pressed in the mold, the excess was trimmed, then the mold was closed and placed in a plastic bag to rest for 45 min at 25 C. The dough strips in the three first and last positions were discarded and the remaining strips (at least 7 for each formulation) were submitted to the uniaxial extension under the following conditions: pre-test speed 2 mm/s, test speed 3.3 mm/s, post-test speed 10 mm/s, distance 75 mm and trigger type auto of 0.2 N. From forceetime curve the resistance to extension (Rext) was the maximum force recorded during the test and the extensibility (E) was the distance traveled by the rig at maximum force.
2.5. Large deformation mechanical tests
The large deformation mechanical tests were conducted to evaluate the machinability of the dough by TPA (Texture Profile Analysis) and dough stickiness determinations.
The TPA was conducted in TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK) using a 45 mm diameter aluminum probe (P/45) according to the following procedure: after resting for 15 min after kneading, a portion of dough was sheeted to 8 mm thickness and cut into discs of 55 mm diameter. At least 5 discs of each formulation were tested and compressed up to 60% of their original height at 1 mm/s and the time between compressions was 75 s as established by Armero and Collar (1997).
Parameters such as hardness (H), resilience (Res), cohesiveness (C), springiness (S), and adhesiveness (Ad) were calculated from the TPA curves using the software Exponent (SMS, UK).
The dough stickiness was determined using the same Texture Analyzer equipped with the CheneHoseney Dough Stickiness Rig, following the manufacturer's protocol (SMS, 1995). After kneading, the dough samples were placed in the rig, extruded through 1 mm diameter holes and covered with a Perspex lid to avoid moisture loss. Dough was compressed once with a Perspex probe of 25 mm diameter (P/25P) moving at 0.5 mm/s until the force achieved 0.39 N, then the probe was held for 0.1 s and finally removed from the sample at 10 mm/s. The maximum force necessary to remove the probe from the surface of the dough sample is an indirect measurement of stickiness. The work of adhesion, which is the area under the curve of force as a function of time, corresponds to the energy necessary to unstick the probe from the dough surface and the cohesiveness is the probe displacement until losing contact with the dough surface. The test was performed in four replicates, at least for each formulation.
2.6. Bread quality
2.6.1. Bread making
Dough was produced in a bakery mixer model ALS 25 (Supremax, Brazil). Dry ingredients corresponding to 1 kg of (WF þ RS) mixture were homogenized for 1 min at low speed. Then water was gradually added and mixed during 2 min. After that, salt was added and ingredients were mixed at low speed for 1 min, followed by kneading at high speed for 12 min. Finally dough was left to rest for 15 min and cut into portions of 700 g that were placed into pans previously covered with oil. For each formulation, two pans were placed in the fermentation camera (Degania, Italy) at 32 C for 90 min. After this time, bread was baked in an electrical oven (Degania, Italy) at 180 C with lidded pans for 25 min and without the lids for further 5 min. Loaves were left to cool for at least 1 h before they were packed in plastic bags and stored at room temperature until analyses, which were performed the following day except for crumb firmness which was performed 2, 4 and 7 days after baking.
2.6.2. Specific volume
The volume of the produced loaves was measured by rapeseeds displacement according to the AACC 10-05 method (2000), using bread volumeter equipment (Chopin, France), previously calibrated, and the volume was read in triplicate. Two loaves of each formulation were tested. Specific volume of the loaves was calculated from the measured volume and weight, obtained by direct measure.
2.6.3. Crumb firmness
Crumb firmness was determined using the TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK), according to the method AACC 74-09 (2000). Slices (25 mmethickness) were compressed with a 36 mm diameter probe (P/36R) at a speed of 100 mm/min until a deformation of 40% was reached. The force measured at 25% of deformation was recorded as the firmness of the material, according to the method. The test was performed in triplicates and after three different times of storage (2, 4 and 7 days) to study bread aging.
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2.3. Baking performance testBaking performance test was conducted using a Rheofermentometer F3 (CHOPIN, France). A portion of 250 g of dough was fermented for 3 h at 28.5 C with 2 kg of weight over it according to the Chopin protocol.From the test two curves were obtained: the dough development curve by an optical sensor, which shows the variation of dough height as a function of time during fermentation; and the gas production and retention curves by a pressure sensor. The following parameters were obtained from the dough development curve: maximum height (Hm), time at maximum height (t1), final height (h) and the weakening coefficient (W) calculated according to Eq. (1):W ¼ ðHm hÞ100 (1)HmFrom the gas curves (production and retention of gas as a function of time), the following parameters were obtained: maximum pressure (Hm0 ), time at maximum pressure (t10 ), time at gas release (tx), total volume of gas produced (Vt), volume of gas retained (Vr) and the retention coefficient (R) calculated as Eq. (2):VrR ¼ 100 (2)VtAn additional parameter, adjusted maximum height (Hmadj), was calculated (Eq. (3)) in order to identify the dough development independently from gas production which depends on the yeast activity instead of dough properties:Hmadj ¼ H m Vt0 (3) Vt wherein Vt0 is the total volume of gas obtained from control dough.2.4. Uniaxial extension testsUniaxial extension tests were performed using a TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK) equipped with the accessory Kieffer Dough & Gluten Extensibility Rig and following the protocol described by the manufacturer (SMS, 1995).The mold was covered with a thin layer of mineral oil and Teflon strips were placed in the mold to aid sample removal. Immediately after kneading, a portion of dough was pressed in the mold, the excess was trimmed, then the mold was closed and placed in a plastic bag to rest for 45 min at 25 C. The dough strips in the three first and last positions were discarded and the remaining strips (at least 7 for each formulation) were submitted to the uniaxial extension under the following conditions: pre-test speed 2 mm/s, test speed 3.3 mm/s, post-test speed 10 mm/s, distance 75 mm and trigger type auto of 0.2 N. From forceetime curve the resistance to extension (Rext) was the maximum force recorded during the test and the extensibility (E) was the distance traveled by the rig at maximum force.2.5. Large deformation mechanical testsThe large deformation mechanical tests were conducted to evaluate the machinability of the dough by TPA (Texture Profile Analysis) and dough stickiness determinations.The TPA was conducted in TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK) using a 45 mm diameter aluminum probe (P/45) according to the following procedure: after resting for 15 min after kneading, a portion of dough was sheeted to 8 mm thickness and cut into discs of 55 mm diameter. At least 5 discs of each formulation were tested and compressed up to 60% of their original height at 1 mm/s and the time between compressions was 75 s as established by Armero and Collar (1997).Parameters such as hardness (H), resilience (Res), cohesiveness (C), springiness (S), and adhesiveness (Ad) were calculated from the TPA curves using the software Exponent (SMS, UK).The dough stickiness was determined using the same Texture Analyzer equipped with the CheneHoseney Dough Stickiness Rig, following the manufacturer's protocol (SMS, 1995). After kneading, the dough samples were placed in the rig, extruded through 1 mm diameter holes and covered with a Perspex lid to avoid moisture loss. Dough was compressed once with a Perspex probe of 25 mm diameter (P/25P) moving at 0.5 mm/s until the force achieved 0.39 N, then the probe was held for 0.1 s and finally removed from the sample at 10 mm/s. The maximum force necessary to remove the probe from the surface of the dough sample is an indirect measurement of stickiness. The work of adhesion, which is the area under the curve of force as a function of time, corresponds to the energy necessary to unstick the probe from the dough surface and the cohesiveness is the probe displacement until losing contact with the dough surface. The test was performed in four replicates, at least for each formulation.2.6. Bread quality2.6.1. Bread makingDough was produced in a bakery mixer model ALS 25 (Supremax, Brazil). Dry ingredients corresponding to 1 kg of (WF þ RS) mixture were homogenized for 1 min at low speed. Then water was gradually added and mixed during 2 min. After that, salt was added and ingredients were mixed at low speed for 1 min, followed by kneading at high speed for 12 min. Finally dough was left to rest for 15 min and cut into portions of 700 g that were placed into pans previously covered with oil. For each formulation, two pans were placed in the fermentation camera (Degania, Italy) at 32 C for 90 min. After this time, bread was baked in an electrical oven (Degania, Italy) at 180 C with lidded pans for 25 min and without the lids for further 5 min. Loaves were left to cool for at least 1 h before they were packed in plastic bags and stored at room temperature until analyses, which were performed the following day except for crumb firmness which was performed 2, 4 and 7 days after baking.2.6.2. Specific volumeThe volume of the produced loaves was measured by rapeseeds displacement according to the AACC 10-05 method (2000), using bread volumeter equipment (Chopin, France), previously calibrated, and the volume was read in triplicate. Two loaves of each formulation were tested. Specific volume of the loaves was calculated from the measured volume and weight, obtained by direct measure.2.6.3. Crumb firmnessCrumb firmness was determined using the TA.XTplus Texture Analyser (SMS, UK), according to the method AACC 74-09 (2000). Slices (25 mmethickness) were compressed with a 36 mm diameter probe (P/36R) at a speed of 100 mm/min until a deformation of 40% was reached. The force measured at 25% of deformation was recorded as the firmness of the material, according to the method. The test was performed in triplicates and after three different times of storage (2, 4 and 7 days) to study bread aging.
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2.3 อบการทดสอบประสิทธิภาพการทดสอบประสิทธิภาพ
อบทดลองใช้ rheofermentometer F3 ( โชแปง , ฝรั่งเศส ) ส่วนของ 250 กรัมแป้งมาหมัก 3 H ที่ 28.5 องศาเซลเซียส น้ำหนักกว่า 2 กิโลกรัม ตามพิธีสารโชแปง .
จากการทดสอบสองเส้นโค้งที่ได้รับ : แป้งการพัฒนาเส้นโค้งโดยเซ็นเซอร์แสงซึ่งแสดงให้เห็นถึงการเปลี่ยนแปลงความสูงของแป้งเป็นฟังก์ชันของเวลาในการหมัก และผลิตก๊าซธรรมชาติ และการรักษาเส้นโค้งโดยเซ็นเซอร์ด้วย พารามิเตอร์ต่อไปนี้ได้มาจากแป้งการพัฒนาเส้นโค้ง : สูง ( HM ) เวลาที่ความสูงสูงสุด ( T1 ) ความสูง ( H ) และสุดท้าย ) ค่าสัมประสิทธิ์ ( W ) ที่คำนวณได้ตามอีคิว ( 1 ) :
w ¼ð HM H Þ 100 ( 1 ) หือ

จากแก๊สเส้นโค้ง ( การผลิตและการเก็บรักษาก๊าซเป็นฟังก์ชันของเวลา ) , พารามิเตอร์ต่อไปนี้ได้ : ความดันสูงสุด ( hm0 ) เวลาที่ความดันสูงสุด ( t10 ) เวลาที่ปล่อยก๊าซ ( TX ) , ปริมาณรวมของก๊าซที่ผลิต ( VT ) ปริมาณก๊าซสะสม ( VR ) และความคงทนในการจำ ค่าสัมประสิทธิ์สหสัมพันธ์ ( r ) ที่คำนวณได้ เช่น อีคิว ( 2 ) :

r ¼ VR 100 ( 2 )
v
เป็นพารามิเตอร์เพิ่มเติม ปรับความสูงสูงสุด ( hmadj )คํานวณ ( อีคิว ( 3 ) เพื่อศึกษาการพัฒนาแป้งอย่างอิสระจากก๊าซธรรมชาติซึ่งขึ้นอยู่กับยีสต์กิจกรรมแทนคุณสมบัติของแป้ง :
hmadj ¼ H M vt0 ( 3 ) VT นั้น vt0 เป็นปริมาณรวมของก๊าซที่ได้จากแป้งควบคุม .
2.4 . การทดสอบแรงอัดแกนเดียว
นามสกุลนามสกุลทดสอบโดยใช้เครื่องวิเคราะห์เนื้อสัมผัส ta.xtplus ( SMS ,สหราชอาณาจักร ) อุปกรณ์เสริม คีเฟอร์แป้ง&ตังขยายขุดเจาะและต่อไปนี้ขั้นตอนที่อธิบายไว้โดยผู้ผลิต ( SMS , 1995 ) .
แม่พิมพ์ถูกปกคลุมด้วยชั้นบาง ๆของน้ำมัน และแร่แผ่นเทฟล่อนอยู่ในแม่พิมพ์เพื่อช่วยเอาตัวอย่าง ทันทีหลังนวด ส่วนของแป้งก็กดในแม่พิมพ์ ส่วนที่เกินก็ตัดออกแล้วราปิด และ อยู่ในถุงพลาสติก เพื่อพักผ่อนสำหรับ 45 นาที ที่อุณหภูมิ 25 องศาเซลเซียส แป้งแผ่นใน 3 ครั้งแรก และตำแหน่งสุดท้ายคือ ยกเลิก และแถบที่เหลือ ( อย่างน้อย 7 สำหรับแต่ละสูตร ) ที่ถูกส่งไปยังนามสกุลเดียวภายใต้เงื่อนไขต่อไปนี้ : ทดสอบความเร็ว 2 mm / s ความเร็วทดสอบ . mm / s โพสต์ทดสอบความเร็ว 10 mm / s ระยะทาง 75 มิลลิเมตรประเภทที่เรียกโดยอัตโนมัติจาก 0.2 N
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