Specifically, males were more likely to have initiated
daily smoking than females from age 13 to age 21. Compared
with European Americans, African-Americans and
Asian Americans were significantly less likely to have initiated
daily smoking, whereas Native Americans were more
likely to have initiated daily smoking from age 13 to age 21.
Eligibility for free lunch during grades 5, 6, or 7 predicted
a higher risk of daily smoking initiation before age 19, and
dropped to nonsignificance at age 21. Among family smoking
factors, a higher level of parental smoking when children
were age 12 predicted a significantly higher risk of
daily smoking initiation from age 13 to age 21 (Figure 1).
This continued influence of early parent smoking may be
owing to the high continuity in parental smoking over time
(annual continuity coefficients in parental smoking averaged
.85). Similarly, sibling smoking also predicted a significantly
higher risk of daily smoking initiation. A higher
level of family monitoring and rules predicted a significantly
lower risk of daily smoking initiation from age 13 to
age 21 (Figure 2), as did moderate and consistent family
discipline. In contrast, a higher level of family conflict
predicted a significantly higher risk of initiation of daily
smoking during the same age period. A higher level of
family bonding predicted a significantly lower risk of daily
smoking initiation, especially during the early years of high
school (Figure 3). Finally, when children were age 12, their
parents’ attitudes against smoking were associated with a
lower risk of initiation, whereas a child’s involvement with
family members’ smoking was associated with a higher risk
of initiation of daily smoking.