Goal orientation was measured using a validated translated version of the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Elliot & McGregor, 2001), a 12-item measure that assesses learners’ orientation. Subscales for each achievement goal were composed of three 7-point Likert items. Cronbach’s alpha values were .87 (mastery-approach), .89 (mastery-avoidance), .92 (performance-approach), .83 (performance-avoidance).