Pierson developed path-dependence theory by adding the concept of "increasing returns". In other words, the probability of taking further steps along the same path increases as the relative benefits of the current activity, compared with other possible options, increase or as the costs of switching to a plausible alternative increase . According to Pierson (2000; 1997), politics is particularly susceptible to this logic because of its collective nature, its complexity and opacity, and the institutional density of politics, political authority and power asymmetries. Three additional characteristics of politics-the absence or weakness of the efficiency-enhancing mechanisms of competition and learning, the short time horizons of political actors, and the strong status quo bias built into political institutions also enhance the appeal of policy inertia. If the lock-in effects are added, the costs of reform or institutional transformation increase significantly; the more solidly the lock-in effects or factors are built into institutions, the less likely is institutional or policy change . These principles of path-dependence theory apply not only to the realm of political institutions and policies, but also to that of cognitive science, ranging from ideologies to the understandings of particular aspects of governments or orientations toward political groups or parties